Estimate and needs of the transgender adult population: the SPoT study.

BACKGROUND: Despite the increasing interest in transgender health research, to date little is known about the size of the transgender and gender diverse (TGD) population. METHODS: A web-based questionnaire survey was developed, including a collection of socio-demographic characteristics and disseminated online through social media. Gender incongruence was evaluated by using a 2-item approach assessing gender recorded at birth and gender identity. The primary objective of the present population-based study was to estimate the proportion of TGD people across ages among a large sample of people who answered a web-based survey. The secondary endpoints were to identify gender-affirming needs and possible barriers to healthcare access. RESULTS: A total of 19,572 individuals participated in the survey, of whom 7.7% reported a gender identity different from the sex recorded at birth. A significantly higher proportion of TGD people was observed in the youngest group of participants compared with older ones. Among TGD people who participated in the study, 58.4% were nonbinary, and 49.1% experienced discrimination in accessing health care services. Nonbinary TGD participants reported both the need for legal name and gender change, along with hormonal and surgical interventions less frequently compared to binary persons. CONCLUSIONS: Being TGD is not a marginal condition In Italy. A large proportion of TGD persons may not need medical and surgical treatments. TGD people often experience barriers to healthcare access relating to gender identity.

Sociodemographic profile, health-related behaviours and experiences of healthcare access in Italian transgender and gender diverse adult population.

PURPOSE: Information on the general health of transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals continues to be lacking. To bridge this gap, the National Institute of Health in Italy together with the National Office against Racial Discriminations, clinical centres, and TGD organizations carried out a cross-sectional study to define the sociodemographic profile, health-related behaviours, and experiences of healthcare access in Italian TGD adult population. METHODS: A national survey was conducted by Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI) technique. Collected data were compared within the TGD subgroups and between TGD people and the Italian general population (IGP). RESULTS: TGD respondents were 959: 65% assigned female at birth (AFAB) and 35% assigned male at birth (AMAB). 91.8% and 8.2% were binary and non-binary TGD respondents, respectively. More than 20% of the TGD population reported to be unemployed with the highest rate detectable in AMAB and non-binary people. Cigarette smoking and binge drinking were higher in the TGD population compared with IGP (p < 0.05), affecting TGD subgroups differently. A significant lower percentage of AFAB TGD people reported having had screening for cervical and breast cancer in comparison with AFAB IGP (p < 0.0001, in both cases). Over 40% was the percentage of AFAB and non-binary TGD people accessing healthcare who felt discriminated against because of their gender identity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are a first step towards a better understanding of the health needs of TGD people in Italy in order to plan the best policy choices for a more inclusive public health.

SIGIS-SIAMS-SIE position statement of gender affirming hormonal treatment in transgender and non-binary people.

PURPOSE: Gender Incongruence (GI) is a marked and persistent incongruence between an individual's experienced and the assigned gender at birth. In the recent years, there has been a considerable evolution and change in attitude as regards to gender nonconforming people. METHODS: According to the Italian Society of Gender, Identity and Health (SIGIS), the Italian Society of Andrology and Sexual Medicine (SIAMS) and the Italian Society of Endocrinology (SIE) rules, a team of experts on the topic has been nominated by a SIGIS-SIAMS-SIE Guideline Board on the basis of their recognized clinical and research expertise in the field, and coordinated by a senior author, has prepared this Position statement. Later on, the present manuscript has been submitted to the Journal of Endocrinological Investigation for the normal process of international peer reviewing after a first internal revision process made by the SIGIS-SIAMS-SIE Guideline Board. RESULTS: In the present document by the SIGIS-SIAMS-SIE group, we propose experts opinions concerning the psychological functioning, gender affirming hormonal treatment, safety concerns, emerging issues in transgender healthcare (sexual health, fertility issues, elderly trans people), and an Italian law overview aimed to improve gender non-conforming people care. CONCLUSION: In this Position statement, we propose experts opinions concerning the psychological functioning of transgender people, the gender-affirming hormonal treatment (full/partial masculinization in assigned female at birth trans people, full/partial feminization and de-masculinization in assigned male at birth trans people), the emerging issues in transgender health care aimed to improve patient care. We have also included an overview of Italian law about gender affirming surgery and registry rectification.

Evaluation of ATG5 polymorphisms in Italian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: contribution to disease susceptibility and clinical phenotypes.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a common heterogeneous autoimmune disease that is caused by the involvement both of genetic and environmental factors. There is evidence that autophagy is involved in several aspects of SLE pathogenesis. In particular, polymorphisms in the ATG5 gene have been observed to be associated with disease susceptibility. Our aim was to verify if ATG5 polymorphisms are involved in the susceptibility to disease and its clinical phenotypes in an Italian cohort of SLE patients. This study involved 315 SLE patients and 265 healthy controls. Three polymorphisms in the ATG5 gene (rs573775, rs6568431 and rs2245214) were investigated by allelic discrimination assay. A case-control association study, a genotype/phenotype correlation analysis and a haplotype study were performed. Moreover, an expression study was conducted in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 15 SLE patients to verify a possible effect of the three SNPs on the expression of ATG5. Among the three investigated SNPs, only the rs573775 SNP was significantly associated with disease susceptibility with the variant allele conferring a higher risk of developing SLE (OR = 1.50, p = 0.018 and OR = 1.48, p = 0.007 at the genotypic and allelic level, respectively). The variant allele of rs6568431 SNP was more present in patients with anemia (OR = 1.86, p = 0.009) and renal involvement (OR = 1.63, p = 0.06), while the variant allele of rs2245214 SNP was significantly associated with a higher risk of producing anti-DNA autoantibodies (OR = 1.66, p = 0.04). Carriers of the rs6568431 variant allele showed higher messenger RNA levels compared to the carriers of the wild-type allele, suggesting also a potential variant allele dose-dependent effect on gene expression. In conclusion, our study confirms a role for ATG5 polymorphisms both in disease susceptibility and in the modulation of clinical phenotypes in an Italian SLE cohort. These results further suggest that genetic variations in autophagy genes could play a role in autoimmune diseases susceptibility and are worth further investigation.

Streptococcal-vimentin cross-reactive antibodies induce microvascular cardiac endothelial proinflammatory phenotype in rheumatic heart disease.

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is characterized by the presence of anti-streptococcal group A antibodies and anti-endothelial cell antibodies (AECA). Molecular mimicry between streptococcal antigens and self proteins is a hallmark of the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever. We aimed to identify, in RHD patients, autoantibodies specific to endothelial autoantigens cross-reactive with streptococcal proteins and to evaluate their role in inducing endothelial damage. We used an immunoproteomic approach with endothelial cell-surface membrane proteins in order to identify autoantigens recognized by AECA of 140 RHD patients. Cross-reactivity of purified antibodies with streptococcal proteins was analysed. Homologous peptides recognized by serum cross-reactive antibodies were found through comparing the amino acid sequence of streptococcal antigens with human antigens. To investigate interleukin (IL)-1R-associated kinase (IRAK1) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation, we performed a Western blot analysis of whole extracts proteins from unstimulated or stimulated human microvascular cardiac endothelial cells (HMVEC-C). Adhesion molecule expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors were studied by multiplex bead based immunoassay kits. We observed anti-vimentin antibodies in sera from 49% RHD AECA-positive patients. Cross-reactivity of purified anti-vimentin antibodies with heat shock protein (HSP)70 and streptopain streptococcal proteins was shown. Comparing the amino acid sequence of streptococcal HSP70 and streptopain with human vimentin, we found two homologous peptides recognized by serum cross-reactive antibodies. These antibodies were able to stimulate HMVEC-C inducing IRAK and NF-κB activation, adhesion molecule expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors. In conclusion, streptococcal-vimentin cross-reactive antibodies were able to activate microvascular cardiac endothelium by amplifying the inflammatory response in RHD.

Effect of therapeutic inhibition of TNF on circulating endothelial progenitor cells in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

Endothelial dysfunction has been detected in RA patients and seems to be reversed by control of inflammation. Low circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have been described in many conditions associated with increased cardiovascular risk, including RA. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of inhibition of TNF on EPCs in RA patients. Seventeen patients with moderate-severe RA and 12 sex and age-matched controls were evaluated. Endothelial biomarkers were tested at baseline and after 3 months. EPCs were identified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells by cytofluorimetry using anti-CD34 and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor-receptor 2. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) was tested by ELISA and flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) by ultrasonography. Circulating EPCs were significantly lower in RA patients than in controls (P = 0.001). After 3 months EPCs increased significantly (P = 0.0006) while ADMA levels significantly decreased (P = 0.001). An inverse correlation between mean increase in EPCs number and mean decrease of DAS28 after treatment was observed (r = -0.56, P = 0.04). EPCs inversely correlated with ADMA (r = -0.41, P = 0.022). No improvement of FMD was detected. Short-term treatment with anti-TNF was able to increase circulating EPCs concurrently with a proportional decrease of disease activity suggesting that therapeutic intervention aimed at suppressing the inflammatory process might positively affect the endothelial function.

Skewed T-cell receptor variable ß repertoire and massive T-cell activation in idiopathic orofacial granulomatosis.

Orofacial granulomatosis (OFG) is a clinicopathologic entity describing oral lesions with noncaseating granulomas including a spectrum of diseases such as the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. The involvement of abnormal T-cell responses has been suggested in the pathogenesis of OFG although few and contrasting data are currently available on this issue. In a patient with OFG, we observed virtually complete CD4 and CD8 T-cell receptor (TCR) ß-chain variable region (BV) repertoires at the lesion level and in circulation. However, oligoclonal profiles were found in CD4 and, to a greater extent, in CD8 subsets. These findings were seen in association with a massive peripheral T-cell activation, decreased naive T cells, reduced thymic output, altered cytokine production, and increased apoptosis. Our data, pointing to a random influx of T cells at the site of inflammation, argue against the hypothesis of a main allergen acting at the level of oral mucosa. The profound dysregulation of the peripheral T-cell compartment suggests that OFG should be regarded as a systemic disorder with localized manifestations.

Effect of late prophylaxis in hemophilia on joint status: a randomized trial.

Essentials High-quality data are lacking on use of prophylaxis in adults with hemophilia and arthropathy. SPINART was a 3-year randomized clinical trial of late/tertiary prophylaxis vs on-demand therapy. Prophylaxis improved function, quality of life, activity and pain but not joint structure by MRI. Prophylaxis improves function but must start before joint bleeding onset to prevent arthropathy. SUMMARY: Background Limited data exist on the impact of prophylaxis on adults with severe hemophilia A and pre-existing joint disease. Objectives To describe 3-year bleeding, joint health and structure, health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) and other outcomes from the open-label, randomized, multinational SPINART study. Patients/Methods Males aged 12-50 years with severe hemophilia A, ≥ 150 factor VIII exposure days, no inhibitors and no prophylaxis for > 12 consecutive months in the past 5 years were randomized to sucrose-formulated recombinant FVIII prophylaxis or on-demand therapy (OD). Data collected included total and joint bleeding events (BEs), joint structure (magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]), joint health (Colorado Adult Joint Assessment Scale [CAJAS]), HRQoL, pain, healthcare resource utilization (HRU), activity, and treatment satisfaction. Results Following 3 years of prophylaxis, adults maintained excellent adherence, with a 94% reduction in BEs despite severe pre-existing arthropathy; 35.7% and 76.2% of prophylaxis participants were bleed-free or had fewer than two BEs per year, respectively. As compared with OD, prophylaxis was associated with improved CAJAS scores (least squares [LS] mean, - 0.31 [n = 42] versus + 0.63 [n = 42]) and HAEMO-QoL-A scores (LS mean, + 3.98 [n = 41] versus - 6.00 [n = 42]), less chronic pain (50% decrease), and approximately two-fold less HRU; activity, Euro QoL-5D-3L (EQ-5D-3L) scores and satisfaction scores also favored prophylaxis. However, MRI score changes were not different for prophylaxis versus OD (LS mean, + 0.79 [n = 41] versus + 0.96 [n = 38]). Conclusions Over a period of 3 years, prophylaxis versus OD in adults with severe hemophilia A and arthropathy led to decreased bleeding, pain, and HRU, better joint health, activity, satisfaction, and HRQoL, but no reduction in structural arthropathy progression, suggesting that pre-existing joint arthropathy may be irreversible.

Changes in host cell molecules acquired by circulating HIV-1 in patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy and interleukin-2.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse cell membrane proteins (CMP) acquired by HIV-1 present in the plasma of asymptomatic patients, and their modifications after a cycle of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and interleukin (IL)-2. DESIGN AND METHODS: Plasma samples from eight drug-naive asymptomatic subjects underwent immobilized antibody capture (IAC) to detect CMP on the surface of circulating HIV-1. The CMP considered were lymphocyte subset markers (CD45RA, CD45RO), activation markers (HLA-DR), adhesion molecules (LFA-3), costimulatory proteins (B7-2), lymph-node homing receptors (CD62L) and pro-apoptosis molecules (FasL). This analysis was repeated after one cycle of HAART + IL-2, after virus rebound. RESULTS: LFA-3, followed by CD45RO and HLA-DR, are the most represented CMP on the surface of circulating virions in naive asymptomatic patients; CD45RA, CD62L, B7-2 and FasL are detected only occasionally. After rebound, a significant reduction of CD45RO and HLA-DR, but not of LFA-3, is observed on virions, whereas CD45RA and CD62L, as well as other molecules, are not affected, remaining almost undetectable. CONCLUSIONS: Assuming that CMP on HIV-1 reflect the cellular origin of virions, activated T cells expressing CD45RO, HLA-DR, and LFA-3 may be the main source of HIV-1 in asymptomatic patients. After a cycle of HAART + IL-2, followed by therapy interruption, CD45RA and CD62L are detected on virions rarely, indicating that even during virus rebound, expanded naive T cells do not become a major target of virus replication. Furthermore, the presence of HLA-DR on rebound HIV-1 is decreased, consistent with decreased activation of the HIV-producing cells. More extensive investigation may clarify the significance of these findings with respect to pathogenesis.

T-Cell immune activation in children with vertically transmitted hepatitis C virus infection.

Little is known concerning the clinical features, the histological outcome, and the effects on the maturation of immune system of children with vertically-transmitted hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Specifically, no data are available on the peripheral distribution of T-cell subsets. The frequency of naive and memory cells, activated T cells, and cytokine-producing T cells was analyzed in nine HCV-infected children born to HCV-positive mothers. In HCV-infected children, the distribution of naive and memory cells was not significantly altered in the CD4 subset whereas within the CD8 subset, an increase of memory and a decrease of naive cells was observed. The frequency of HLA-DR-positive and Fas-positive T cells was increased in HCV-infected children in both CD4 and CD8 subsets. The distribution of Fas-expressing T cells was directly related to that of HLA-DR cells and inversely related to the frequency of naive T cells. In regard with cytokine production we found increased levels of both CD4 and CD8 interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-producing cells whereas no difference in the percentage of interleukin-2 (IL-2)-producing T cells was observed. No meaningful correlation was observed between individual T cell subsets and ALT levels or HCV viral load. In conclusion, our results indicate an increased T-cell activation and a shift to a T(H)1 pattern of cytokine production in children with vertically transmitted HCV infection. The cause of this kind of immune response could reside in the persistent antigenic stimulation by chronic HCV infection.

HIV type 1-induced inhibition of CD45 tyrosine phosphatase activity correlates with disease progression and apoptosis, but not with anti-CD3-induced T cell proliferation.

The tyrosine phosphatase CD45 is a key positive element in multiple lymphocyte signaling pathways. To understand the contribution of CD45 to HIV-1-induced T cell hyporesponsiveness and apoptosis we evaluated the CD45-associated tyrosine phosphatase activity of lymphocytes from patients with different stages of HIV-1 disease and compared it with CD45 expression, spontaneous and Fas-induced apoptosis, anti-CD3-induced T cell proliferation, distribution of CCR5 delta32/wt, and cytokine production. The proliferative response to anti-CD3 as well as the CD45-associated phosphatase activity were significantly reduced in progressors. In long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs) the proliferative response to anti-CD3 was also diminished, although to a lesser extent, while the tyrosine phosphatase activity was not significantly impaired. One-third of LTNPs were found positive for the 32-bp deletion of the CCR5 gene. This mutation had no effects on anti-CD3 proliferative response or CD45 phosphatase activity. A significant reduction in IL-2 and IFN-gamma was observed in both LTNPs and in normal progressors, whereas IL-4 production was significantly decreased only in progressors. Last, we observed a significant correlation between CD45 phosphatase activity and apoptosis. We therefore conclude that the impairment of CD45 tyrosine phosphatase activity correlates with disease progression and the level of T cell apoptosis, but not with anti-CD3-induced T cell proliferation. Moreover, we suggest that evaluation of CD45 tyrosine phosphatase activity may represent an additional tool with which to assess disease progression.

Evaluation of T-cell response to CD3 plus CD28 monoclonal antibodies in HIV-1 infected subjects treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy.

To investigate whether highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) could improve CD28 molecule expression and CD28-costimulation pathway function we tested the effect of CD28-costimulation on T cell receptor/CD3 induced proliferative responses in a group of HIV-1-infected subjects with CD4+ cells>200/mmc before and after HAART. CD3-mediated responses are recovered or improved after HAART. However the ability of potentiating the responses through CD28-costimulation seemed conserved before therapy and decreased in parallel with increase of response to CD3 alone. These results confirm the integrity of CD28-pathway of costimulation in patients with CD4+ cells>200/mmc and suggest an inverse correlation between magnitude of response to CD3 alone and increase of CD3 response due to anti-CD28 addition.

BIM upregulation and ROS-dependent necroptosis mediate the antitumor effects of the HDACi Givinostat and Sorafenib in Hodgkin lymphoma cell line xenografts.

Relapsed/refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) is an unmet medical need requiring new therapeutic options. Interactions between the histone deacetylase inhibitor Givinostat and the RAF/MEK/ERK inhibitor Sorafenib were examined in HDLM-2 and L-540 HL cell lines. Exposure to Givinostat/Sorafenib induced a synergistic inhibition of cell growth (range, 70-80%) and a marked increase in cell death (up to 96%) due to increased H3 and H4 acetylation and strong mitochondrial injury. Gene expression profiling indicated that the synergistic effects of Givinostat/Sorafenib treatment are associated with the modulation of cell cycle and cell death pathways. Exposure to Givinostat/Sorafenib resulted in sustained production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of necroptotic cell death. The necroptosis inhibitor Necrostatin-1 prevented Givinostat/Sorafenib-induced ROS production, mitochondrial injury, activation of BH3-only protein BIM and cell death. Knockdown experiments identified BIM as a key signaling molecule that mediates Givinostat/Sorafenib-induced oxidative death of HL cells. Furthermore, in vivo xenograft studies demonstrated a 50% reduction in tumor burden (P<0.0001), a 5- to 15-fold increase in BIM expression (P < 0.0001) and a fourfold increase in tumor necrosis in Givinostat/Sorafenib-treated animals compared with mice that received single agents. These results provide a rationale for exploring Givinostat/Sorafenib combination in relapsed/refractory HL.

Role of alpha-synuclein in autophagy modulation of primary human T lymphocytes.

It has been demonstrated that α-synuclein can aggregate and contribute to the pathogenesis of some neurodegenerative diseases and it is capable of hindering autophagy in neuronal cells. Here, we investigated the implication of α-synuclein in the autophagy process in primary human T lymphocytes. We provide evidence that: (i) knocking down of the α-synuclein gene resulted in increased autophagy, (ii) autophagy induction by energy deprivation was associated with a significant decrease of α-synuclein levels, (iii) autophagy inhibition by 3-methyladenine or by ATG5 knocking down led to a significant increase of α-synuclein levels, and (iv) autophagy impairment, constitutive in T lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, was associated with abnormal accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates. These results suggest that α-synuclein could be considered as an autophagy-related marker of peripheral blood lymphocytes, potentially suitable for use in the clinical practice.

Apoptosis in the homeostasis of the immune system and in human immune mediated diseases.

The immune system has evolved sophisticated mechanisms controlling the development of responses to dangerous antigens while avoiding unnecessary attacks to innocuous, commensal or self antigens. The risk of autoimmunity is continuously checked and balanced against the risk of succumbing to exogenous infectious agents. It is therefore of paramount importance to understand the molecular events linking the breakdown of tolerance and the development of immunodeficiency. Apoptotic mechanisms are used to regulate the development of thymocytes, the shaping of T cell repertoire, its selection and the coordinate events leading to immune responses in the periphery. Moreover, they are at the heart of the homeostatic controls restoring T cell numbers and establishing T cell memory. T lymphocytes shift continuously from survival to death signals to ensure immune responsiveness without incurring in autoimmune damage. In this review we shall consider some key facts on the relationship of lymphopenia to autoreactivity, the mechanisms controlling positive and negative selection in the thymus, the role of apoptosis in selected primary immunodeficiency states and in systemic and organ-specific autoimmunity, with examples from human diseases and their animal models.

Low-dose IL-2 reduces lymphocyte apoptosis and increases naive CD4 cells in HIV-1 patients treated with HAART.

During HIV disease an increased in vitro apoptosis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells has been demonstrated. This can be reversed in vitro by interleukin (IL)-2. Recent trials with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and IL-2 in HIV-1-infected patients showed promising immunological and clinical results. Here we investigated the effects of subcutaneous low-dose IL-2 administration in combination with HAART on in vitro apoptosis and the relationship between apoptosis, CD4(+) counts, and HIV replication. Twenty-two asymptomatic HIV patients were randomized for HAART (arm I) and HAART plus IL-2 (arm II). Spontaneous apoptosis was decreased in both arms after 28 weeks of therapy but the reduction was highly significant only in arm II (P = 0.05 vs P = 0.001). As the percentage of apoptosis decreased, there was a significantly higher increase of both CD4(+) and CD4(+) naive T cells in arm II vs arm I. HIV plasma viremia was reduced in all patients after therapy. Our data suggest that intermittent therapy with low-dose subcutaneous IL-2 in addition to HAART induces a positive immunomodulation in asymptomatic HIV-infected patients.

Apoptosis in asymptomatic HIV-1 seropositives immunized with HIV-1 env glycoprotein (gp160): effects of administration of Zidovudine in vivo and interleukin-2 in vitro.

In this paper we report the effects of VaxSyn (Protein Sciences Corp.) immunization on spontaneous apoptosis occurring in vitro after culture of PBMC in medium alone in 30 HIV-seropositive patients enrolled in a double-blind clinical trial that included three groups: treatment with VaxSyn, AZT and VaxSyn, and AZT. Our data show no significant modifications in the levels of apoptosis observed in the three groups over the long-term follow-up (up to 720 days). This was not associated with any significant modifications in other clinical or immunological features. However, analysis of apoptosis performed shortly after the first immunization (at days 3 and 7) showed a significant reduction in the rate of apoptosis in patients receiving AZT and AZT and VaxSyn, as compared with patients receiving VaxSyn alone (30.42 +/- 2.52 SE at day 0 and 23.74 +/- 1.84 at day 3; p = 0.039). Our data also indicate that addition of IL-2 in vitro had a significant inhibitory effect on mortality in all the randomization groups, especially in those receiving AZT (alone or in combination with VaxSyn).

CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptor expression and beta-chemokine production during early T cell repopulation induced by highly active anti-retroviral therapy.

Expression of chemokine receptors and beta-chemokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were determined in HIV-1-infected individuals before and after highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) and their relationship to viral load, T cell phenotype and the expression of immunological activation markers was examined. We found that the expression of CCR5 is up-regulated in HIV-1-infected individuals while CXCR4 appears down-regulated on both CD4 and CD8 T cells compared with normal controls. These alterations are associated with the high levels of viral load. In addition, a relationship was observed between the degree of immune activation and chemokine receptor expression on T cells. However, after 3 months of combined anti-retroviral regimen, expression of CXCR4 significantly increased while CCR5 decreased when compared with pretherapy determinations. This was seen in strict association with a dramatic decrease of viral load and an increase of both CD45RA+/CD62L+ (naive) and CD45RA-/CD62L+ or CD45RA+/CD62L- (memory) T cells accompanied by a significant decrease of the expression of immune activation markers such as HLA-DR and CD38. At enrolment, both spontaneous and lectin-induced RANTES, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha) and MIP-1beta production by PBMC were higher in HIV-1-infected individuals compared with normal controls, although differences for MIP-1beta were not statistically significant. However, RANTES and MIP-1alpha production decreased during HAART at levels closer to that determined with normal controls, while MIP-1beta production was less consistently modified. These data indicate that the expression of chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 and the production of beta-chemokines are altered in HIV-infected individuals, and suggest that their early modifications during HAART reflect both the peripheral redistribution of naive/memory T cell compartments and the decrease in levels of T cell activation. Such modifications in the expression of host determinants of viral tropism and the production of anti-viral molecules may play a role in the emergence of virus variants when a failure of HAART occurs.

T cell receptor repertoire and function in patients with DiGeorge syndrome and velocardiofacial syndrome.

DiGeorge syndrome (DGS) and velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS) are associated with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion. Limited information is available on the T cell receptor (TCR) Vbeta repertoire. We therefore investigated TCR Vbeta families in lymphocytes isolated from blood and thymic samples of seven patients with DGS and seven patients with VCFS, all with 22q11.2 deletion. We also studied activities related to TCR signalling including in vitro proliferation, anti-CD3-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation, and susceptibility to apoptosis. Reduced CD3+ T cells were observed in most patients. Spontaneous improvement of T cell numbers was detected in patients, 3 years after the first study. Analysis of CD4+ and CD8+ TCR Vbeta repertoire in peripheral and thymic cells showed a normal distribution of populations even if occasional deletions were observed. Lymphoproliferative responses to mitogens were comparable to controls as well as anti-CD3-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Increased anti-CD3-mediated apoptosis was observed in thymic cells. Our data support the idea that in patients surviving the correction of cardiac anomalies, the immune defect appears milder than originally thought, suggesting development of a normal repertoire of mature T cells.