Impact of fetal exposure to mycotoxins on longissimus muscle fiber hypertrophy and miRNA profile.

BACKGROUND: Longissimus muscle samples were collected from lambs exposed in utero to mycotoxins [E-, endophyte-free tall fescue seed without ergot alkaloids (negative control) or E + , endophyte-infected tall fescue seed containing ergot alkaloids] during mid-gestation (MID; E + /E-) or late-gestation (LATE; E-/E +) harvested at two developmental stages (FETAL, gestational d133) or (MAT, near maturity, 250 d of age; n = 3/treatment/developmental stage). Muscle samples were examined to determine the impact of in utero mycotoxin exposure on skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy and the miRNA profile at FETAL and MAT. RESULTS: Longissimus weight was greater (P < 0.05) in E + /E- lambs compared to E-/E + lambs at MAT; however, FETAL longissimus weight did not differ (P > 0.10) between fescue treatments. Type I fiber cross sectional area was larger (P < 0.10) for E + /E- than E-/E + at MAT but did not differ (P > 0.10) between fescue treatments at FETAL. Type II fiber area was larger (P < 0.05) at MAT in E + /E- compared to E-/E + but did not differ (P < 0.05) between fescue treatments at FETAL. Cross-sectional Type I and Type II longissimus muscle fiber area increased (P < 0.05) from FETAL to MAT by 6.86-fold and 10.83-fold, respectively. The ratio of Type II:Type I muscle fibers was lower (P = 0.04) at MAT compared to FETAL. There were 120 miRNA differentially expressed (q < 0.05) between FETAL and MAT. Maternal fescue treatment did not alter (q > 0.05) expression of miRNAs in the longissimus muscle. miR-133, -29a, -22-3p, and -410-3p were identified as highly significant with a log2 fold change > 4. In vitro satellite cell cultures showed that selected miRNAs (miR-22-3p, 29a, 27a, and 133a) are differentially regulated during proliferation and differentiation indicating a role of miRNA in muscle hypertrophy. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to mycotoxins did not alter fiber type but had long-term impacts on postnatal muscle hypertrophy and cross-sectional area. The miRNA profile of the longissimus was not altered by Maternal mycotoxin exposure at FETAL or MAT. Developmental age altered the miRNA transcriptome and mRNA expression of known genes related to muscle growth. These results indicate that Maternal exposure to E + fescue seed during LATE gestation can alter postnatal muscle hypertrophy in sheep; however, these changes are not regulated by the miRNA transcriptome of the longissimus muscle.

Use of AgomiR and AntagomiR technologies to alter satellite cell proliferation in vitro, miRNA expression, and muscle fiber hypertrophy in intrauterine growth-restricted lambs.

Introduction: microRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that work at the posttranscriptional level to repress gene expression. Several miRNAs are preferentially expressed in skeletal muscle and participate in myogenesis. This research was conducted to alter endogenous miRNA expression in skeletal muscle to promote muscle hypertrophy. Methods: Two experiments were conducted using mimic/agomiR or antagomir technologies to alter miRNA expression and examine changes in myoblast proliferation in vitro (experiment 1) and muscle hypertrophy in vivo (experiment 2). In vitro experiments found that antagomiR-22-3p and mimic-127 increased myoblast proliferation compared to other miRNA treatments or controls. These miRNA treatments, antagomiR-22-3p (ANT22) and agomiR-127 (AGO127), were then used for intramuscular injections in longissimus muscle. Results and discussion: The use of antagomiR or mimic/agomiR treatments down-regulated or up-regulated, respectively, miRNA expression for that miRNA of interest. Expression of predicted target KIF3B mRNA for miR-127 was up-regulated and ACVR2a mRNA was up-regulated for miR-22-3p. ANT22 injection also up-regulated the major regulator of protein synthesis (mTOR). Proteomic analyses identified 11 proteins for AGO127 and 9 proteins for ANT22 that were differentially expressed. Muscle fiber type and cross-sectional area were altered for ANT22 treatments to transition fibers to a more oxidative state. The use of agomiR and antagomir technologies allows us to alter miRNA expression in vitro and in vivo to enhance myoblast proliferation and alter muscle fiber hypertrophy in IUGR lambs during early postnatal growth.

Mycotoxin ingestion during late gestation alters placentome structure, cotyledon transcriptome, and fetal development in pregnant sheep.

Ergot alkaloids, a class of mycotoxins, induce vasoconstriction when consumed by animals and humans. Pregnant ewes (n = 16; 81.2 kg ± 7.7) were assigned fed endophyte-infected tall fescue seed (E+; 4.14 µg ergovaline + ergovalinine/g seed) or a control diet (CON; 0 µg ergovaline + ergovalinine) for increasing duration during late gestation (from gd86 to gd110 or gd133) to examine changes in placentome morphology and mRNA transcriptome, and fetal development. Exposure to E+ fescue reduced serum prolactin concentrations at gd110 and gd133 demonstrating treatment efficacy. For control ewes, cotyledon and total placentome weights decreased with advancing gestation due to remodeling of placental tissues; however, cotyledon and placentome weight did not change with advancing gestation in E+ fed ewes. Fetal brain sparing was evident in E+ exposed fetuses at gd110 and gd133 compared to CON, which demonstrates asymmetrical growth and intrauterine growth restriction. Mycotoxin exposure (E+) resulted in differential expression of 22 genes in the cotyledon tissue at gd110 but only one gene at gd133 compared to CON. These results suggest that the response to mycotoxin exposure in the pregnant sheep model has an immediate impact on placental remodeling and fetal development that persists throughout the duration of the exposure period.

The effect of ergot alkaloid exposure during gestation on the microscopic morphology and vasculature of the ovine placenta.

Ergot alkaloids, a class of mycotoxins associated with ergotism, act as agonists on serotonin (5HT) receptors, specifically 5HT2a, which mediate smooth muscle contraction and vasoconstriction. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of ergot alkaloid exposure during mid and late gestation on microscopic placental structure and vascular development. Ewes were fed endophyte-infected tall fescue seed containing ergot alkaloids (E+/E+, 1.77 mg ewe-1 d-1) or endophyte-free tall fescue seed (E-/E-, 0 mg ergot alkaloids) during both mid (d 35 to d 85) and late gestation (d 86 to d 133). On d 133 of gestation, a terminal surgery was performed and two placentomes of the type B morphology were collected for microscopic analyses. Amorphous connective tissue regions were larger (p < 0.0001) and more numerous (p = 0.025) in the placentome of ergot alkaloid exposed ewes. Staining showed no difference (p = 0.83) in the number of vessels present, but luminal area of maternal vasculature was 117% greater (p < 0.0001) in ergot alkaloid exposed ewes. Results showed that exposure to ergot alkaloids during gestation slowed maturation of the fetal villi as indicated by greater amorphous connective tissue regions, and altered size and shape of blood vessels to counteract reductions in blood flow caused by vasoconstriction.

Technique for differentiating cortical hemispheric activity following exercise.

Peripheral Critical Flicker Fusion technology was explored as a basis for inferred differences between right and left cortical hemispheric activity following exercise. 18 subjects underwent three treatments presented in randomized order with 1-wk. intervals in between them. Conditions included a control, 30 min. of steady-state treadmill running, and 20 min. of treadmill running followed by progressively increasing speed until exhaustion intervened. Immediately following each treatment, subjects were given a test of peripheral critical flicker fusion as measured in both peripheral retinal fields. Differences between right and left peripheral retinal field perception were analyzed for the three conditions with a one-way analysis of variance using a repeated-measures design. A significant difference was found among the three treatments for peripheral CFF differences between right and left peripheral fields. A Newman-Keuls test demonstrated a significant shift in cortical activation toward the left hemisphere following the exhaustive exercise. The inferred shift in cortical activity inferred from peripheral CFF, occurs following exhaustive exercise. The left hemisphere was viewed as the dominant locus of cortical activation in that fatigue state.

Flicker fusion as a typological index of nervous system 'reactivity'.

Flicker fusion responses were determined under varying stimulus intensities for 43 subjects. A mathematical index of the responses was derived for each individual and compared to a single flicker fusion response. A correlation demonstrated independence between the two measures.

Entamoeba histolytica: FYVE-finger domains, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate biosensors, associate with phagosomes but not fluid filled endosomes.

Endocytosis is an important virulence function for Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amoebic dysentery. Although a number of E. histolytica proteins that regulate this process have been identified, less is known about the role of lipids. In other systems, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), a product of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase), has been shown to be required for endocytosis. FYVE-finger domains are protein motifs that bind specifically to PI3P. Using a PI3P biosensor consisting of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) fused to two tandem FYVE-finger domains, we have localized PI3P to phagosomes but not fluid-phase pinosomes in E. histolytica, suggesting a role for PI3P in phagocytosis. Treatment of cells with PI 3-kinase inhibitors impaired GST-2 x FYVE-phagosome association supporting the authenticity of the biosensor staining. However, treatment with PI 3-kinase inhibitors did not inhibit E. histolytica-particle interaction, indicating that PI3P is not required for the initial step, but is required for subsequent steps of phagocytosis.

Entamoeba histolytica: comparison of the role of receptors and filamentous actin among various endocytic processes.

Entamoeba histolytica is the causative agent of amoebic dysentery. Uptake of iron is critical for E. histolytica growth and iron-bound human transferrin (holo-transferrin) has been shown to serve as an iron source in vitro. Although a transferrin-binding protein has been identified in E. histolytica, the mechanism by which this iron source is taken up by this pathogen is not well understood. To gain insight into this process, the uptake of fluorescent-dextran, -holo-transferrin, and human red blood cells (hRBCs) was compared. Both dextran and transferrin were taken up in an apparent receptor-independent fashion as compared to hRBCs, which were taken up in a receptor-mediated fashion. Interestingly, the uptake of FITC-dextran and FITC-holo-transferrin differentially relied on an intact actin cytoskeleton suggesting that their internalization routes may be regulated independently.