How effective are health messages/warnings in improving knowledge and awareness of alcohol-related harm? The Slovenian case on using a mobile app.

BACKGROUND: Consumers generally lack access to information on alcoholic beverages, in spite of it being readily available for food and non-alcoholic beverages. Given the rights of consumers, and as with other products harmful to the population, there have been increasing calls for health warnings to be placed on alcoholic beverages, similar to those implemented on tobacco products. The aim of our research was to assess whether knowledge and awareness of the risks and harms associated with alcohol can be improved with a mobile app. METHODS: Intervention was conducted using VKJ mobile app, which enables users to scan the barcode of an alcoholic beverage and receive feedback on its labelled alcohol content and estimated energy value. At each search, eleven different health messages/warnings about the risks and harms of alcohol are also displayed randomly, rotating on the screen. A survey was conducted before and after the intervention, to assess the knowledge and awareness of the risks and harms associated with drinking alcohol. RESULTS: Significant differences were found for eight of the twelve tested statements. The improvement was seen to a greater extent in the group of high-risk drinkers. The results also showed that the vast majority of participants (78%) who were exposed to the health messages supported mandatory labelling of alcoholic beverages with information on ingredient listing and energy value, and 72% would like to have health warnings on alcohol products. CONCLUSIONS: The use of a mobile app can be an option to improve knowledge and raise awareness of the risks and harms related to alcohol.

Differences in Ratio of Carbon Stable Isotopes among Barley Grain Milling Fractions with Various Concentrations of Beta-Glucans.

The grains of three barley varieties were milled and sieved to obtain respective milling fractions with a content of beta-glucans (b-G) from 1.4 to 10.7%. The enriched fraction obtained by the extraction and precipitation contained 24.7% of b-G. The differences between the ratio of stable C carbon isotopes were established. Milling fractions with coarse particles had more beta-glucans and a more negative ratio of δ13C isotope in comparison to the respective intact barley grain. However, the enriched fraction had a less negative isotope ratio. So, it is not expected that the deviation from the stable isotope ratio of grain in milling fractions is the result of the content of b-G, but it depends on other barley grain constituents. In different parts of barley grain, there are substances with different stable isotope ratios, and by milling and sieving, they are assorted to the same milling fraction with most of the b-G. The method for determining the ratio of a stable carbon isotope in diverse barley grain fractions, applied in this investigation, is potentially opening the possibility for an additional method of screening the concentration of bioactive constituents in barley grain.

Assessment of trans-fatty acid content in a sample of foods from the Slovenian food supply using a sales-weighting approach.

OBJECTIVE: Consumption of trans-fatty acids (TFA) is a well-established risk factor for CVD morbidity and mortality. Our objective was to investigate TFA levels in Slovenian food supply. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Selected foods (n 282) were purchased in Slovenia (2016), and the TFA content was determined. The sample included pre-packed foods with/without declared partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (PHO), as well as non-pre-packed foods. A sales-weighting approach was used to ponder different market shares of the products. RESULTS: While the majority of the investigated samples had low levels of TFA, up to 6·8 g of TFA per 100 g of food was observed in certain foods. Within pre-packed foods (n 207), the highest proportion of samples with high TFA levels was found among cookies with labelled PHO: 69 % (n 18) would exceed European Union regulatory TFA limit (2 g industrial TFA per 100 g of fats), which will be implemented in April 2021. Among the investigated non-pre-packed foods (n 75), only croissants contained notable TFA levels (mean 0·90 (sd 0·97); maximum 3·3 g/100 g), with about half of the samples exceeding 2 g TFA per 100 g of fats. CONCLUSIONS: In 2016, some foods in Slovenian food supply still contained notable amounts of TFA. Foods with listed PHO as an ingredient were usually higher in TFA as compared with foods not labelled to contain PHO. Biscuits were identified as the most concerning category of pre-packed foods, while croissants contained highest levels of TFA within non-pre-packed foods.

Comparison of requirements for using health claims on foods in the European Union, the USA, Canada, and Australia/New Zealand.

Nutrition is recognized as one of the leading factors influencing the growing incidence of noncommunicable diseases. Despite society experiencing a global rise in obesity, specific populations remain at risk of nutrient deficiencies. The food industry can use health claims to inform consumers about the health benefits of foods through labeling and the broader promotion of specific food products. As health claims are carefully regulated in many countries, their use is limited due to considerable investments required to fulfill the regulatory requirement. Although health claims represent a driving force for innovation in the food industry, the risk of misleading of consumers need to be avoided. The health claim scientific substantiation process must be efficient and transparent in order to meet the needs of companies in the global market, but should be based on strong scientific evidence and plausible mechanisms of actions, to ensure highest level of consumer protection. The objective of this review is to compare the possibilities for using health claims on foods in the European Union, the USA, Canada, and Australia and New Zealand. In particular, we focused on differences in the classification of claims, on the scientific substantiation processes and requirements for health claims use on foods in the selected regions. Reduction of disease risk (RDR) claims are associated with relatively similar procedures and conditions for use, whereas several notable differences were identified for other types of claims. In all cases, RDR claims must be approved prior their introduction to the market, and only a few such claims have been authorized. Much greater differences were observed concerning other types of claims.

Regulating children's exposure to food marketing on television: are the restrictions during children's programmes enough?

Due to rising global rates of childhood obesity, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the adoption of policies to restrict children's exposure to the advertising of unhealthy foods and beverages. In 2017, the Slovenian government introduced regulations to restrict the advertisement of unhealthy foods and beverages during designated children's television programming. The objective of our study was to assess the impact of these regulations on children's exposure to food advertising, including during children's programmes and at peak viewing times for children. Using a standardised methodology, we investigated a large sample of 6479 food advertisements broadcast during 1652 h of television programming between 2016 and 2018 on the five most popular television channels for children aged 4-9 years. Advertised food products were coded using the WHO Regional Office for Europe Nutrient Profile Model, modified for Slovenia. The average overall frequency of not permitted (unhealthy) food advertising (±SD; standard deviation) per hour was 2.90 ± 3.22 (2016), 2.66 ± 3.55 (2017), or 2.13 ± 3.04 (2018) ads/h/channel. The frequency of not permitted food ads decreased to 0.02 ± 0.01 per h/channel during cartoons and other children's programmes in 2018. The new Slovenian food marketing regulations have reduced the advertising of unhealthy foods during children's programmes. However, children's viewership rates are also high outside of this designated programming and, as such, children's overall exposure to unhealthy food advertising is unlikely to have been reduced considerably by the regulations. Future policy interventions should be planned to cover not only children's programmes but also broadcasting periods that include the greatest numbers of child viewers. The implementation of such policies would be more challenging given that children's peak viewing times often intersect with prime time.

Trends in marketing foods to children in Slovenian magazines: a content analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Food marketing is an important factor influencing children's food preferences. In Slovenia the use of magazines is widespread among children. We investigated food advertising in children's and teens' magazines (CTM) in 2013 and 2017. The penetration of food advertising was compared with magazines targeting the adult population. DESIGN: A repeated cross-sectional study. Magazines were searched for branded food references (BFR). All BFR were categorised and evaluated using the WHO Europe nutrient profile model. SETTING: Slovenia. SUBJECTS: All issues of CTM and a selected sample of issues of adult-targeting magazines and newspapers published in Slovenia in 2013 and 2017. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-five issues of CTM (ninety-two in 2013, eighty-three in 2017) and 675 issues of adult-targeted magazines and newspapers were analysed (345 in 2013, 330 in 2017). In 2017, food advertising in CTM dropped notably but the opposite was found for adult-targeted magazines. Regular advertisements dominated in 2017 in CTM, while in 2013, 83 % of BFR types were games/puzzles, competitions and product placements. Chocolate and confectionery were the most advertised in CTM and food supplements in adults' magazines. Most foods in CTM were classed as 'not permitted' in both years (98 % in 2013 and 100 % in 2017). CONCLUSIONS: The advertisements in CTM still mostly refer to unhealthy foods. The extent of food advertising has dropped considerably since 2013. On the contrary, food advertising in printed media targeting adults has increased, chiefly referring to food supplements and foods that do not pass the WHO Europe nutrient profile model criteria.

Nutritional Challenges in Nursing Homes: Pilot Study on Macronutrient Intake and Status of Vitamins D and B12.

Older adults living in nursing homes (NH) are considered a population group that could be at risk in terms of nutrition, even more so than their community-dwelling peers. Evidence on the nutritional status of NH residents is scarce, as they are commonly excluded from population-based dietary studies. This is also the case in Slovenia. In the presented pilot study, we assessed the intake of macronutrients as well as the intake and status of vitamin D and vitamin B12 on a sample of NH and NH daycare center users to explore the need for a larger representative study. The pilot study included 37 participants from three Slovenian NH (20 participants) and their daycare centers (17 participants). Daycare centers offer daytime care services for older adults, where users are also provided with major meals during their stay. Intakes of energy and nutrients were estimated by three 24 h dietary records. Fasting blood samples were collected for the assessment of vitamin D and vitamin B12 status. Over 90% of the participants had daily energy and protein intakes below recommendations (reference values: energy intake: males 2100 kcal and females 1700 kcal; protein intake > 1 g/kg body mass). The males' median daily intakes of vitamin D were 1.7 µg (1.5 µg females), and 2.3 µg for vitamin B12 (2.0 µg females). None of the participants had adequate vitamin D intake (>20 µg), and 92.3% males and 87.5% females had inadequate vitamin B12 intake (<4 µg). The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-OH-D conc. < 30 nmol/L) was 100% among NH residents and 53% among NH daycare center users. The prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency was found in 20% of NH residents. The study results highlighted that certain nutrients might be critical in this population, especially among NH residents; however, a more thorough investigation with the inclusion of other important markers of nutritional status should be performed on a larger, representative sample to support the development and implementation of appropriate public health interventions.

NutriGreen image dataset: a collection of annotated nutrition, organic, and vegan food products.

Introduction: In this research, we introduce the NutriGreen dataset, which is a collection of images representing branded food products aimed for training segmentation models for detecting various labels on food packaging. Each image in the dataset comes with three distinct labels: one indicating its nutritional quality using the Nutri-Score, another denoting whether it is vegan or vegetarian origin with the V-label, and a third displaying the EU organic certification (BIO) logo. Methods: To create the dataset, we have used semi-automatic annotation pipeline that combines domain expert annotation and automatic annotation using a deep learning model. Results: The dataset comprises a total of 10,472 images. Among these, the Nutri-Score label is distributed across five sub-labels: Nutri-Score grade A with 1,250 images, grade B with 1,107 images, grade C with 867 images, grade D with 1,001 images, and grade E with 967 images. Additionally, there are 870 images featuring the V-Label, 2,328 images showcasing the BIO label, and 3,201 images without before-mentioned labels. Furthermore, we have fine-tuned the YOLOv5 segmentation model to demonstrate the practicality of using these annotated datasets, achieving an impressive accuracy of 94.0%. Discussion: These promising results indicate that this dataset has significant potential for training innovative systems capable of detecting food labels. Moreover, it can serve as a valuable benchmark dataset for emerging computer vision systems.

Dietary Intake of Adolescents and Alignment with Recommendations for Healthy and Sustainable Diets: Results of the SI.Menu Study.

BACKGROUND: The SI.Menu study offers the latest data on the dietary intake of Slovenian adolescents aged 10 to 17. The purpose of this study is to comprehensively assess their dietary intake (energy and nutrients) and compare their food intakes with dietary recommendations for healthy and sustainable diets. METHODS: The cross-sectional epidemiological dietary study SI.Menu (March 2017-April 2018) was conducted on a representative sample of Slovenian adolescents aged 10 to 17 years (n = 468) (230 males and 238 females). Data on dietary intake were gathered through two non-consecutive 24 h recalls, in line with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) EU Menu methodology. The repeated 24 h Dietary Recall (HDR) and Food Propensity Questionnaire (FPQ) data were combined to determine the usual intakes of nutrients and food groups, using the Multiple Source Method (MSM) program. RESULTS: Adolescents' diets significantly deviate from dietary recommendations, lacking vegetables, milk and dairy products, nuts and seeds, legumes, and water, while containing excessive meat (especially red meat) and high-sugar foods. This results in insufficient intake of dietary fibre, and nutrients such as vitamin D, folate, and calcium. CONCLUSIONS: The dietary intake of Slovenian adolescents does not meet healthy and sustainable diet recommendations. This study provides an important insight into the dietary habits of Slovenian adolescents that could be useful for future public health strategies.

Comparison of Nutri-Score and Health Star Rating Nutrient Profiling Models Using Large Branded Foods Composition Database and Sales Data.

Front-of-package nutrition labelling (FOPNL) is known as an effective tool that can encourage healthier food choices and food reformulation. A very interesting type of FOPNL is grading schemes. Our objective was to compare two market-implemented grading schemes-European Nutri-Score (NS) and Australian Health Star Rating (HSR), using large Slovenian branded foods database. NS and HSR were used for profiling 17,226 pre-packed foods and drinks, available in Slovenian food supply dataset (2020). Alignment between models was evaluated with agreement (% of agreement and Cohen's Kappa) and correlation (Spearman rho). The 12-month nationwide sales-data were used for sale-weighing, to address market-share differences. Study results indicated that both models have good discriminatory ability between products based on their nutritional composition. NS and HSR ranked 22% and 33% of Slovenian food supply as healthy, respectively. Agreement between NS and HSR was strong (70%, κ = 0.62) with a very strong correlation (rho = 0.87). Observed profiling models were most aligned within food categories Beverages and Bread and bakery products, while less aligned for Dairy and imitates and Edible oils and emulsions. Notable disagreements were particularly observed in subcategories of Cheese and processed cheeses (8%, κ = 0.01, rho = 0.38) and Cooking oils (27%, κ = 0.11, rho = 0.40). Further analysis showed that the main differences in Cooking oils were due to olive oil and walnut oil, which are favoured by NS and grapeseed, flaxseed and sunflower oil that are favoured by HSR. For Cheeses and cheese products, we observed that HSR graded products across the whole scale, with majority (63%) being classified as healthy (≥3.5 *), while NS mostly graded lower scores. Sale-weighting analyses showed that offer in the food supply does not always reflect the sales. Sale-weighting increased overall agreement between profiles from 70% to 81%, with notable differences between food categories. In conclusion, NS and HSR were shown as highly compliant FOPNLs with few divergences in some subcategories. Even these models do not always grade products equally high, very similar ranking trends were observed. However, the observed differences highlight the challenges of FOPNL ranking schemes, which are tailored to address somewhat different public health priorities in different countries. International harmonization can support further development of grading type nutrient profiling models for the use in FOPNL, and make those acceptable for more stake-holders, which will be crucial for their successful regulatory implementation.

Results of longitudinal Nutri-D study: factors influencing winter and summer vitamin D status in a Caucasian population.

Introduction: Inadequate vitamin D status is a worldwide public health issue. In humans, vitamin D status is affected by diet, and even more by exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) light and consequential endogenous synthesis. Various personal and environmental factors influence endogenous synthesis. Factors affecting vitamin D status were investigated in a prospective longitudinal cohort study with a summer and winter observation period. Methods: The final sample included 292 adults, of those 111 (38%) males and 181 (62%) females, with a mean age of 38.2 (±11.8) years from Slovenia who were not supplementing vitamin D. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations were measured in both periods; vitamin D intake, self-reported body mass index (BMI), and protective behaviors against sun were also recorded. Other measured parameters included measurements of constitutive skin color using the objective individual typology angle (ITA), and difference in the melanin index (ΔMI) for assessment of objective sun exposure. Results: In winter a high prevalence (63.4%) of insufficient vitamin D status (< 50 nmoL/L) was observed with higher odds ratios (OR) for insufficiency in those with a higher BMI and light ITA. During summer, insufficiency prevalence was low (5.5%), but half of the participants (50.0%) had suboptimal 25(OH)D concentration (< 75 nmol/L). In summer OR for suboptimal status were higher in those with obesity, lower ΔMI, light ITA, low vitamin D intake, and protective clothing behaviors. Conclusion: Using a series of measures, we showed that vitamin D status is hugely affected by several personal factors such as BMI, ITA, vitamin D intake, ΔMI, and protective behavior against the sun. This conclusion questions the usefulness of generalized population-level recommendations since personal factors are a major predictor of vitamin D status.

Identifying Differences in Consumer Attitudes towards Local Foods in Organic and National Voluntary Quality Certification Schemes.

As no study on attitudes towards local food has compared "organic" and national quality scheme consumer segments, this study aimed to provide further insights and clarifications on the issue of consumer segmentation in terms of trust towards organic food and food of selected quality perceived as local, along socioeconomic characteristics, and other important determinants of this complex interaction. The research examines consumers' attitudes and perceptions related to two quality schemes for special Slovenian foods: "Organic", which relates to production methods; and "Selected Quality", which relates to quality attributes. The study focused on two segments of consumers, who exhibit a high level of trust towards the two quality schemes. Comparative analysis of the consumer segments looked for the potential differences with respect to their sociodemographic profiles, as well as to their understanding of the definition of local food, attitudes towards local food, trust in actors and institutions, and willingness to purchase local food. The study combined qualitative approaches and a quantitative survey with a general population sample. The results showed that both consumer groups have similar understandings of local food, with region-based interpretations outperforming country-based interpretations. The "Organic" group was more cosmopolitan and supportive of the local community, regardless of geographic proximity, than the "Selected Quality" group. Older consumers occupy a larger share of both segments, with professionals and individuals with higher incomes more likely to be in the "Organic" group and retirees and students more likely to be in the "Selected Quality" group. To increase the consumers' interest in food with the "Organic" and "Selected Quality" schemes, more specific product propositions should be developed.

Changes in the Sodium Content in Branded Foods in the Slovenian Food Supply (2011-2020).

High sodium intake is the leading diet-related risk factor for mortality globally. Many countries have introduced policies to support the reformulation of foods and to reduce sodium intake, mainly on a voluntary basis, but there are limited data available about the long-term efficiency of such measures. Slovenia implemented salt reduction policies for the period of 2010-2020; these policies also included the voluntary reformulation of foods with the lowering of sodium content. This study's aim was to explore the nationally representative branded food datasets collected in the years 2011, 2015, 2017, and 2020 to investigate the changes in the sodium content in prepacked branded foods. The study was conducted with datasets collected from food labels using standard food monitoring studies and included all the major retailers. Differences in market shares were adjusted by sales weighting, which was conducted using the yearly sales data provided by the major retailers. The food categories with a major contribution to the overall sales of sodium in prepacked branded foods were processed meat and derivatives (19.0%), canned vegetables (7.1%), water (6.7%), bread (7.2%), and cheese (6.3%). Considering the available food products, a notable decreasing sodium content trend was observed in biscuits, breakfast cereals, pizza, and spreads. Year-to-year differences were much less expressed after the correction for market share differences, and neutral trends were most frequently highlighted. This indicates that sodium was less frequently reduced in market-leading products. The study results revealed that very limited progress in sodium food reformulation was achieved in the 10-year period, indicating the need for more efficient policy approaches. The study demonstrated the importance of the systematic monitoring of the food supply for the evaluation of food policies.

Consumers' Preferences towards Bread Characteristics Based on Food-Related Lifestyles: Insights from Slovenia.

Consumers' recognition and understanding of food characteristics can have an important role when making purchase decisions. The current study analysed consumer preferences for bread, an important food in the diets of Central European countries. The study included a conjoint experiment on a representative sample of 547 adult consumers in Slovenia. The following bread attributes: functional ingredients (chia seeds, linseed, quinoa, and Tartary buckwheat); nutritional claims (low salt, high fibre, and high protein); and other claims (organic, free from additives, flour from Slovenia, and wholegrain) were studied. The results showed the strongest relative importance for functional ingredients (a mean relative importance of 83.9%). In addition, a deeper insight into consumer preference was investigated by a recently developed modular instrument for food-related lifestyles. Latent class cluster analysis (LCA) enabled the identification of four consumer segments (uninvolved, conservative, health-conscious, and moderate) with different preferences toward selected functional ingredients, nutrition, and other claims. The results provide insights that allow for a better understanding of consumer preferences for functional ingredients and claims, and new perspectives for bread marketing to different consumer segments based on food-related lifestyles. Identifying the drivers that affect bread purchasing and consumption can support reformulation activities and product promotion in the direction of reinforcing healthier food choices.

Assessment of the Use of Food Supplements by Military Personnel: Study Protocol and Results.

Due to their specific mode of operation, military personnel are challenged physically as well as mentally. In most countries, the use of food supplements by military personnel is not regulated, and a high prevalence of supplementation is expected. However, data on this are scarce or very limited, without insights into the importance of supplementation for the intake of bioactive substances. Our goal was, therefore, to develop a study protocol to enable an assessment of the prevalence of using food supplements and an estimate of the contribution of supplementation practices to the dietary intake of specific nutrients and other compounds. The protocol was tested in a study of Slovene Armed Forces (SAF) personnel. Data were collected using an anonymous questionnaire in a sample of 470 participants from different military units-about half from the barracks located across the country, and the other half returning from military operations abroad. To provide meaningful results, we recorded the use of food supplements and functional foods available in single-sized portions (i.e., energy drinks, protein bars, etc.). Altogether, 68% of the participants reported supplementation, most commonly with vitamin, mineral, and protein supplements. Military rank, participation status in military operations, and physical activity were the main determinants of the specific supplements used. Surprisingly, a lower prevalence of overall and protein supplementation was observed in subjects returning from military operations abroad (62 vs. 74%) than in personnel stationed in barracks across Slovenia; however, the frequency of the use of energy drinks and caffeine supplements was higher in this population (25 vs. 11%). The study design allowed for estimations of the daily intake of supplemented bioactive compounds. We describe the challenges and approaches used in the study to support similar studies in the future and within other populations.

Validation of the food frequency questionnaire for the assessment of dietary vitamin D intake.

Vitamin D and its adequate status are related to many aspects of human health; therefore, an appropriate tool is needed for the valid assessment of vitamin D status. The main contributor to vitamin D status is endogenous synthesis after cutaneous exposure to ultraviolet B light (UVB), but in the absence of UVB radiation, vitamin D intake becomes an important source of vitamin D. Various tools are available for vitamin D intake assessments, with the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) being among the fastest, cheapest, and most convenient; however, until now, these tools have not been adapted for the Slovenia (SI). To enable valid vitamin D intake estimation, we developed a simple one-page semi-quantitative FFQ (sqFFQ/SI) and tested its validity using a 5-day dietary record (DR) as a reference method. The reproducibility was tested with the second sqFFQ/SI (sqFFQ/SI2) 6 weeks after the first (sqFFQ/SI1). The validity and reproducibility of this method were tested on 54 participants using Bland-Altman plots, Spearman's correlation, and Kappa analyses of tertiles. The mean daily vitamin D intake was 3.50 ± 1.91 µg according to the 5-day DR, and 2.99 ± 1.35 and 3.31 ± 1.67 µg according to the sqFFQ/SI1 and repeated sqFFQ/SI (sqFFQ/SI2), respectively. When analyzing for validity, the sqFFQ/SI1 was found to be significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with the 5-day DR, with an acceptable correlation coefficient of 0.268 and a Bland-Altman index of 3.7%. For reproducibility, the correlation between the sqFFQ/SI1 and sqFFQ/SI2 was highly significant (p < 0.001), with a good correlation coefficient of 0.689 and a Bland-Altman index of 3.7%. Kappa analyses of tertiles showed a poor validity and acceptable reproducibility. Overall, we observed a higher reproducibility than validity. Validation and reproducibility analyses demonstrated that the proposed sqFFQ/SI is acceptable and is, therefore, an appropriate tool for the effective assessment of habitual vitamin D intake on an individual level. With this consideration, this tool will be used in further population studies to assess vitamin D intake and for the development of a screening tool for the assessment of the risk for vitamin D deficiency, which will be used as a foundation for evidence-based policy-making decisions.

European household spending and socio-economic impacts on food behavior during the first wave of COVID-19.

This paper provides a European-level analysis using a large-scale survey of 13 countries to examine the power of relevant economic and socio-demographic characteristics to account for changes in food consumption and purchasing behavior during COVID-19. This was done by focusing on a two-level analysis of subject-related predictors highlighted in many existing country-level studies to test the generality of their significance. The Level 1 predictors relate to the individual households participating in the survey consisting of household composition, education, and location, as well as three types of perceived COVID-19 risks of infection, severity, and anxiety. Level 2 relates to the national level, and especially to the financial situation measured by the mean national Actual Individual Consumption (AIC) per capita in PPP, of the countries, in which the households reside. In terms of changes in food consumption, results show that household composition, education, and the household's perceived risk of both being infected by COVID-19 and being severely infected are significant predictors, although there are some differences between the two levels. Some possible explanations are as follows: putting food into one's body in the context of the pandemic is related to a household's financial situation, its composition, especially the presence or absence of children and older people, and its educational attainment, and through all these aforementioned to the perception of COVID-19 infection and its severity risks. Changes in food purchasing react significantly to the same predictors, but additionally, to all other predictors at both household and AIC levels. The household's location and perceived COVID-19 anxiety risks are thus also significant. Food purchasing depends much more on factors operating both at the individual household level and the AIC level together; for example, households' access to food is affected by both national and local lockdown restrictions that vary according to the location of the household.

A Systematic Review of Vitamin D Status and Dietary Intake in Various Slovenian Populations.

AIM: Vitamin D (VitD) is involved in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, bone health, and normal functioning of the immune system. VitD status is monitored using serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25(OH)D) as a biomarker. Serum 25(OH)D concentrations below 30 nmol/L indicate VitD deficiency and below 50 nmol/L indicate insufficiency. VitD can be synthesised endogenously in human skin when exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation. In the absence of sufficient UVB-light exposure, VitD intake becomes the main source of VitD, with a recommended daily intake of 20 µg. The aim of this study was to conduct a review and meta-analysis on the abovementioned topics, focusing on scientific studies in various Slovenian populations. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of published scientific papers, academic theses, or conference contributions reporting serum 25(OH)D status and VitD intake across various Slovenian populations. A search was carried out using Web of Science, Scopus, Medline, and the Slovenian library database. RESULTS: We identified 43 pertinent studies that addressed 25(OH)D status and 16 that addressed VitD intake. Serum 25(OH)D status was generally low across all populations, and notable seasonal variability was observed. VitD intakes were below 5 µg in all studies. CONCLUSIONS: A general observation is that various population groups across Slovenia are at high risk of vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency, particularly during wintertime. Regarding vitamin D intake, all included studies reported daily intakes below the recommended level. We also identified key research gaps that need to be addressed to support further public health decision-making.