SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination elicits a robust and persistent T follicular helper cell response in humans.

SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines induce robust anti-spike (S) antibody and CD4+ T cell responses. It is not yet clear whether vaccine-induced follicular helper CD4+ T (TFH) cell responses contribute to this outstanding immunogenicity. Using fine-needle aspiration of draining axillary lymph nodes from individuals who received the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine, we evaluated the T cell receptor sequences and phenotype of lymph node TFH. Mining of the responding TFH T cell receptor repertoire revealed a strikingly immunodominant HLA-DPB1∗04-restricted response to S167-180 in individuals with this allele, which is among the most common HLA alleles in humans. Paired blood and lymph node specimens show that while circulating S-specific TFH cells peak one week after the second immunization, S-specific TFH persist at nearly constant frequencies for at least six months. Collectively, our results underscore the key role that robust TFH cell responses play in establishing long-term immunity by this efficacious human vaccine.

Influenza vaccination stimulates maturation of the human T follicular helper cell response.

The differentiation and specificity of human CD4+ T follicular helper cells (TFH cells) after influenza vaccination have been poorly defined. Here we profiled blood and draining lymph node (LN) samples from human volunteers for over 2 years after two influenza vaccines were administered 1 year apart to define the evolution of the CD4+ TFH cell response. The first vaccination induced an increase in the frequency of circulating TFH (cTFH) and LN TFH cells at week 1 postvaccination. This increase was transient for cTFH cells, whereas the LN TFH cells further expanded during week 2 and remained elevated in frequency for at least 3 months. We observed several distinct subsets of TFH cells in the LN, including pre-TFH cells, memory TFH cells, germinal center (GC) TFH cells and interleukin-10+ TFH cell subsets beginning at baseline and at all time points postvaccination. The shift toward a GC TFH cell phenotype occurred with faster kinetics after the second vaccine compared to the first vaccine. We identified several influenza-specific TFH cell clonal lineages, including multiple responses targeting internal influenza virus proteins, and found that each TFH cell state was attainable within a clonal lineage. Thus, human TFH cells form a durable and dynamic multitissue network.

CD4+ T cells exhibit distinct transcriptional phenotypes in the lymph nodes and blood following mRNA vaccination in humans.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and mRNA vaccination induce robust CD4+ T cell responses. Using single-cell transcriptomics, here, we evaluated CD4+ T cells specific for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the blood and draining lymph nodes (dLNs) of individuals 3 months and 6 months after vaccination with the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine. We analyzed 1,277 spike-specific CD4+ T cells, including 238 defined using Trex, a deep learning-based reverse epitope mapping method to predict antigen specificity. Human dLN spike-specific CD4+ follicular helper T (TFH) cells exhibited heterogeneous phenotypes, including germinal center CD4+ TFH cells and CD4+IL-10+ TFH cells. Analysis of an independent cohort of SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals 3 months and 6 months after infection found spike-specific CD4+ T cell profiles in blood that were distinct from those detected in blood 3 months and 6 months after BNT162b2 vaccination. Our findings provide an atlas of human spike-specific CD4+ T cell transcriptional phenotypes in the dLNs and blood following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination or infection.

Leveraging vaccination-induced protective antibodies to define conserved epitopes on influenza N2 neuraminidase.

There is growing appreciation for neuraminidase (NA) as an influenza vaccine target; however, its antigenicity remains poorly characterized. In this study, we isolated three broadly reactive N2 antibodies from the plasmablasts of a single vaccinee, including one that cross-reacts with NAs from seasonal H3N2 strains spanning five decades. Although these three antibodies have diverse germline usages, they recognize similar epitopes that are distant from the NA active site and instead involve the highly conserved underside of NA head domain. We also showed that all three antibodies confer prophylactic and therapeutic protection in vivo, due to both Fc effector functions and NA inhibition through steric hindrance. Additionally, the contribution of Fc effector functions to protection in vivo inversely correlates with viral growth inhibition activity in vitro. Overall, our findings advance the understanding of NA antibody response and provide important insights into the development of a broadly protective influenza vaccine.

A vaccine-induced public antibody protects against SARS-CoV-2 and emerging variants.

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 antigenic variants with increased transmissibility is a public health threat. Some variants show substantial resistance to neutralization by SARS-CoV-2 infection- or vaccination-induced antibodies. Here, we analyzed receptor binding domain-binding monoclonal antibodies derived from SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine-elicited germinal center B cells for neutralizing activity against the WA1/2020 D614G SARS-CoV-2 strain and variants of concern. Of five monoclonal antibodies that potently neutralized the WA1/2020 D614G strain, all retained neutralizing capacity against the B.1.617.2 variant, four also neutralized the B.1.1.7 variant, and only one, 2C08, also neutralized the B.1.351 and B.1.1.28 variants. 2C08 reduced lung viral load and morbidity in hamsters challenged with the WA1/2020 D614G, B.1.351, or B.1.617.2 strains. Clonal analysis identified 2C08-like public clonotypes among B cells responding to SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination in 41 out of 181 individuals. Thus, 2C08-like antibodies can be induced by SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and mitigate resistance by circulating variants of concern.

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron boosting induces de novo B cell response in humans.

The primary two-dose SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine series are strongly immunogenic in humans, but the emergence of highly infectious variants necessitated additional doses and the development of vaccines aimed at the new variants1-4. SARS-CoV-2 booster immunizations in humans primarily recruit pre-existing memory B cells5-9. However, it remains unclear whether the additional doses induce germinal centre reactions whereby re-engaged B cells can further mature, and whether variant-derived vaccines can elicit responses to variant-specific epitopes. Here we show that boosting with an mRNA vaccine against the original monovalent SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine or the bivalent B.1.351 and B.1.617.2 (Beta/Delta) mRNA vaccine induced robust spike-specific germinal centre B cell responses in humans. The germinal centre response persisted for at least eight weeks, leading to significantly more mutated antigen-specific bone marrow plasma cell and memory B cell compartments. Spike-binding monoclonal antibodies derived from memory B cells isolated from individuals boosted with either the original SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, bivalent Beta/Delta vaccine or a monovalent Omicron BA.1-based vaccine predominantly recognized the original SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nonetheless, using a more targeted sorting approach, we isolated monoclonal antibodies that recognized the BA.1 spike protein but not the original SARS-CoV-2 spike protein from individuals who received the mRNA-1273.529 booster; these antibodies were less mutated and recognized novel epitopes within the spike protein, suggesting that they originated from naive B cells. Thus, SARS-CoV-2 booster immunizations in humans induce robust germinal centre B cell responses and can generate de novo B cell responses targeting variant-specific epitopes.

Germinal centre-driven maturation of B cell response to mRNA vaccination.

Germinal centres (GC) are lymphoid structures in which B cells acquire affinity-enhancing somatic hypermutations (SHM), with surviving clones differentiating into memory B cells (MBCs) and long-lived bone marrow plasma cells1-5 (BMPCs). SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination induces a persistent GC response that lasts for at least six months in humans6-8. The fate of responding GC B cells as well as the functional consequences of such persistence remain unknown. Here, we detected SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-specific MBCs in 42 individuals who had received two doses of the SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine BNT162b2 six month earlier. Spike-specific IgG-secreting BMPCs were detected in 9 out of 11 participants. Using a combined approach of sequencing the B cell receptors of responding blood plasmablasts and MBCs, lymph node GC B cells and plasma cells and BMPCs from eight individuals and expression of the corresponding monoclonal antibodies, we tracked the evolution of 1,540 spike-specific B cell clones. On average, early blood spike-specific plasmablasts exhibited the lowest SHM frequencies. By contrast, SHM frequencies of spike-specific GC B cells increased by 3.5-fold within six months after vaccination. Spike-specific MBCs and BMPCs accumulated high levels of SHM, which corresponded with enhanced anti-spike antibody avidity in blood and enhanced affinity as well as neutralization capacity of BMPC-derived monoclonal antibodies. We report how the notable persistence of the GC reaction induced by SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in humans culminates in affinity-matured long-term antibody responses that potently neutralize the virus.

SARS-CoV-2 infection induces long-lived bone marrow plasma cells in humans.

Long-lived bone marrow plasma cells (BMPCs) are a persistent and essential source of protective antibodies1-7. Individuals who have recovered from COVID-19 have a substantially lower risk of reinfection with SARS-CoV-28-10. Nonetheless, it has been reported that levels of anti-SARS-CoV-2 serum antibodies decrease rapidly in the first few months after infection, raising concerns that long-lived BMPCs may not be generated and humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 may be short-lived11-13. Here we show that in convalescent individuals who had experienced mild SARS-CoV-2 infections (n = 77), levels of serum anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S) antibodies declined rapidly in the first 4 months after infection and then more gradually over the following 7 months, remaining detectable at least 11 months after infection. Anti-S antibody titres correlated with the frequency of S-specific plasma cells in bone marrow aspirates from 18 individuals who had recovered from COVID-19 at 7 to 8 months after infection. S-specific BMPCs were not detected in aspirates from 11 healthy individuals with no history of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We show that S-binding BMPCs are quiescent, which suggests that they are part of a stable compartment. Consistently, circulating resting memory B cells directed against SARS-CoV-2 S were detected in the convalescent individuals. Overall, our results indicate that mild infection with SARS-CoV-2 induces robust antigen-specific, long-lived humoral immune memory in humans.

SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines induce persistent human germinal centre responses.

SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-based vaccines are about 95% effective in preventing COVID-191-5. The dynamics of antibody-secreting plasmablasts and germinal centre B cells induced by these vaccines in humans remain unclear. Here we examined antigen-specific B cell responses in peripheral blood (n = 41) and draining lymph nodes in 14 individuals who had received 2 doses of BNT162b2, an mRNA-based vaccine that encodes the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) gene1. Circulating IgG- and IgA-secreting plasmablasts that target the S protein peaked one week after the second immunization and then declined, becoming undetectable three weeks later. These plasmablast responses preceded maximal levels of serum anti-S binding and neutralizing antibodies to an early circulating SARS-CoV-2 strain as well as emerging variants, especially in individuals who had previously been infected with SARS-CoV-2 (who produced the most robust serological responses). By examining fine needle aspirates of draining axillary lymph nodes, we identified germinal centre B cells that bound S protein in all participants who were sampled after primary immunization. High frequencies of S-binding germinal centre B cells and plasmablasts were sustained in these draining lymph nodes for at least 12 weeks after the booster immunization. S-binding monoclonal antibodies derived from germinal centre B cells predominantly targeted the receptor-binding domain of the S protein, and fewer clones bound to the N-terminal domain or to epitopes shared with the S proteins of the human betacoronaviruses OC43 and HKU1. These latter cross-reactive B cell clones had higher levels of somatic hypermutation as compared to those that recognized only the SARS-CoV-2 S protein, which suggests a memory B cell origin. Our studies demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-based vaccination of humans induces a persistent germinal centre B cell response, which enables the generation of robust humoral immunity.

Human germinal centres engage memory and naive B cells after influenza vaccination.

Influenza viruses remain a major public health threat. Seasonal influenza vaccination in humans primarily stimulates pre-existing memory B cells, which differentiate into a transient wave of circulating antibody-secreting plasmablasts1-3. This recall response contributes to 'original antigenic sin'-the selective increase of antibody species elicited by previous exposures to influenza virus antigens4. It remains unclear whether such vaccination can also induce germinal centre reactions in the draining lymph nodes, where diversification and maturation of recruited B cells can occur5. Here we used ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration to serially sample the draining lymph nodes and investigate the dynamics and specificity of germinal centre B cell responses after influenza vaccination in humans. Germinal centre B cells that bind to influenza vaccine could be detected as early as one week after vaccination. In three out of eight participants, we detected vaccine-binding germinal centre B cells up to nine weeks after vaccination. Between 12% and 88% of the responding germinal centre B cell clones overlapped with B cells detected among early circulating plasmablasts. These shared B cell clones had high frequencies of somatic hypermutation and encoded broadly cross-reactive monoclonal antibodies. By contrast, vaccine-induced B cell clones detected only in the germinal centre compartment exhibited significantly lower frequencies of somatic hypermutation and predominantly encoded strain-specific monoclonal antibodies, which suggests a naive B cell origin. Some of these strain-specific monoclonal antibodies recognized epitopes that were not targeted by the early plasmablast response. Thus, influenza virus vaccination in humans can elicit a germinal centre reaction that recruits B cell clones that can target new epitopes, thereby broadening the spectrum of vaccine-induced protective antibodies.

Chemical inhibition of DPP9 sensitizes the CARD8 inflammasome in HIV-1-infected cells.

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) induce pyroptosis of HIV-1-infected CD4+ T cells through induction of intracellular HIV-1 protease activity, which activates the CARD8 inflammasome. Because high concentrations of NNRTIs are required for efficient elimination of HIV-1-infected cells, it is important to elucidate ways to sensitize the CARD8 inflammasome to NNRTI-induced activation. We show that this sensitization can be achieved through chemical inhibition of the CARD8 negative regulator DPP9. The DPP9 inhibitor Val-boroPro (VbP) can kill HIV-1-infected cells without the presence of NNRTIs and act synergistically with NNRTIs to promote clearance of HIV-1-infected cells in vitro and in humanized mice. More importantly, VbP is able to enhance clearance of residual HIV-1 in CD4+ T cells isolated from people living with HIV (PLWH). We also show that VbP can partially overcome NNRTI resistance. This offers a promising strategy for enhancing NNRTI efficacy in the elimination of HIV-1 reservoirs in PLWH.

Persons with HIV Develop Spike-Specific Lymph Node Germinal Center Responses following SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination.

COVID-19 disproportionately affects persons with HIV (PWH) in worldwide locations with limited access to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. PWH exhibit impaired immune responses to some, but not all, vaccines. Lymph node (LN) biopsies from PWH demonstrate abnormal LN structure, including dysregulated germinal center (GC) architecture. It is not clear whether LN dysregulation prevents PWH from mounting Ag-specific GC responses in the draining LN following vaccination. To address this issue, we longitudinally collected blood and draining LN fine needle aspiration samples before and after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination from a prospective, observational cohort of 11 PWH on antiretroviral therapy: 2 who received a two-dose mRNA vaccine series and 9 who received a single dose of the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine. Following vaccination, we observed spike-specific Abs, spike-specific B and T cells in the blood, and spike-specific GC B cell and T follicular helper cell responses in the LN of both mRNA vaccine recipients. We detected spike-specific Abs in the blood of all Ad26.COV2.S recipients, and one of six sampled Ad26.COV2.S recipients developed a detectable spike-specific GC B and T follicular helper cell response in the draining LN. Our data show that PWH can mount Ag-specific GC immune responses in the draining LN following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Due to the small and diverse nature of this cohort and the limited number of available controls, we are unable to elucidate all potential factors contributing to the infrequent vaccine-induced GC response observed in the Ad26.COV2.S recipients. Our preliminary findings suggest this is a necessary area of future research.

Neutralizing Antibody Immune Correlates for a Recombinant Protein Vaccine in the COVAIL Trial.

For COVAIL recipients of a COVID-19 Sanofi booster vaccine, neutralizing antibody titers were assessed as a correlate of risk (CoR) of COVID-19. Peak and exposure-proximal titers were inverse CoRs with covariate-adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) 0.30 (0.11, 0.78) and 0.25 (0.07, 0.85) per 10-fold increase in weighted average titer.

Immunogenicity of a 2-Dose Regimen of Moderna mRNA Beta/Omicron BA.1 Bivalent Variant Vaccine Boost in a Randomized Clinical Trial.

We compared the serologic responses of 1 dose versus 2 doses of a variant vaccine (Moderna mRNA-1273 Beta/Omicron BA.1 bivalent vaccine) in adults. A 2-dose boosting regimen with a variant vaccine did not increase the magnitude or the durability of the serological responses compared to a single variant vaccine boost.

Immunogenicity of the BA.1 and BA.4/BA.5 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Bivalent Boosts: Preliminary Results From the COVAIL Randomized Clinical Trial.

In a randomized clinical trial, we compare early neutralizing antibody responses after boosting with bivalent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines based on either BA.1 or BA.4/BA.5 Omicron spike protein combined with wild-type spike. Responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants exhibited the greatest reduction in titers against currently circulating Omicron subvariants for both bivalent vaccines.

Loss of Pfizer (BNT162b2) Vaccine-Induced Antibody Responses against the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant in Adolescents and Adults.

Emerging variants, especially the recent Omicron variant, and gaps in vaccine coverage threaten mRNA vaccine mediated protection against SARS-CoV-2. While children have been relatively spared by the ongoing pandemic, increasing case numbers and hospitalizations are now evident among children. Thus, it is essential to better understand the magnitude and breadth of vaccine-induced immunity in children against circulating viral variant of concerns (VOCs). Here, we compared the magnitude and breadth of humoral immune responses in adolescents and adults 1 month after the two-dose Pfizer (BNT162b2) vaccination. We found that adolescents (aged 11 to 16) demonstrated more robust binding antibody and neutralization responses against the wild-type SARS-CoV-2 virus spike protein contained in the vaccine compared to adults (aged 27 to 55). The quality of the antibody responses against VOCs in adolescents were very similar to adults, with modest changes in binding and neutralization of Beta, Gamma, and Delta variants. In comparison, a significant reduction of binding titers and a striking lack of neutralization was observed against the newly emerging Omicron variant for both adolescents and adults. Overall, our data show that a two-dose BNT162b2 vaccine series may be insufficient to protect against the Omicron variant. IMPORTANCE While plasma binding and neutralizing antibody responses have been reported for cohorts of infected and vaccinated adults, much less is known about the vaccine-induced antibody responses to variants including Omicron in children. This illustrates the need to characterize vaccine efficacy in key vulnerable populations. A third (booster) dose of BNTb162b was approved for children 12 to 15 years of age by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on January 1, 2022, and pediatric clinical trials are under way to evaluate the safety, immunogenicity, and effectiveness of a third dose in younger children. Similarly, variant-specific booster doses and pan-coronavirus vaccines are areas of active research. Our data show adolescents mounted stronger humoral immune responses after vaccination than adults. It also highlights the need for future studies of antibody durability in adolescents and children as well as the need for future studies of booster vaccination and their efficacy against the Omicron variant.

Evaluation of HIV-1 latency reversal and antibody-dependent viral clearance by quantification of singly spliced HIV-1 vpu/env mRNA.

The latent reservoir of HIV-1 is a major barrier for viral eradication. Potent HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNabs) have been used to prevent and treat HIV-1 infections in animal models and clinical trials. Combination of bNabs and latency-reversing agents (LRAs) is considered a promising approach for HIV-1 eradication. PCR-based assays that can rapidly and specifically measure singly spliced HIV-1 vpu/env mRNA are needed to evaluate the induction of the viral envelope production at the transcription level and bNab-mediated reservoir clearance. Here we reported a PCR-based method to accurately quantify the production of intracellular HIV-1 vpu/env mRNA. With the vpu/env assay, we determined the LRA combinations that could effectively induce vpu/env mRNA production in CD4+ T cells from ART-treated individuals. None of the tested LRAs were effective alone. A comparison between the quantitative viral outgrowth assay (Q-VOA) and the vpu/env assay showed that vpu/env mRNA production was closely associated with the reactivation of replication-competent HIV-1, suggesting that vpu/env mRNA was mainly produced by intact viruses. Finally, antibody-mediated in vitro killing in HIV-1-infected humanized mice demonstrated that the vpu/env assay could be used to measure the reduction of infected cells in tissues and was more accurate than the commonly used gag-based PCR assay which measured unspliced viral genomic RNA. In conclusion, the vpu/env assay allows convenient and accurate assessment of HIV-1 latency reversal and bNab-mediated therapeutic strategies.ImportanceHIV-1 persists in individuals on antiretroviral therapy (ART) due to the long-lived cellular reservoirs that contain dormant viruses. Recent discoveries of HIV-1-specific broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNabs) targeting HIV-1 Env protein rekindled the interest in antibody-mediated elimination of latent HIV-1. Latency-reversing agents (LRAs) together with HIV-1 bNabs is a possible strategy to clear residual viral reservoirs, which makes the evaluation of HIV-1 Env expression upon LRA treatment critical. We developed a PCR-based assay to quantify the production of intracellular HIV-1 vpu/env mRNA. Using patient CD4+ T cells, we found that induction of HIV-1 vpu/env mRNA required a combination of different LRAs. Using in vitro, ex vivo and humanized mouse models, we showed that the vpu/env assay could be used to measure antibody efficacy in clearing HIV-1 infection. These results suggest that the vpu/env assay can accurately evaluate HIV-1 reactivation and bNab-based therapeutic interventions.

The impact of neighborhood socioeconomic status on retention in care and viral suppression among people living with HIV.

Our study combined publicly available neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) data from the U.S. Census and clinical data to investigate the relationships between nSES, retention in care (RIC) and viral suppression (VS). Data from 2275 patients were extracted from 2009 to 2015 from a midwestern infectious diseases clinic. RIC was defined as patients who kept ≥ 3 visits and VS as an average viral load <200 copies/mL during their index year of study. Logistic regression models provided estimates for neighborhood-level and patient-level variables. In multivariable models, patients living in zip codes with low disability rates (1.50, 1.30-1.70), who wereolder (1.02, 1.01-1.03), and receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART; 3.81, 3.56-4.05) were more likely to have RIC, while those who were unemployed (0.72, 0.45-0.98) and self-reported as BIPOC (0.79, 0.64-0.97) were less likely to have RIC. None of the nSES variables were significantly associated with VS in multivariable models, yet older age (1.05, 1.04-1.05) and self-reported as BIPOC (1.68, 1.36-2.09) were modestly associated with VS, and receiving ART (6.14, 5.86-6.42) was a strong predictor of VS. In multivariable models, nSES variables were independently predictive more than of patient-level variables, for RIC but not VS.

Effect of Immunosuppression on the Immunogenicity of mRNA Vaccines to SARS-CoV-2 : A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with chronic inflammatory disease (CID) treated with immunosuppressive medications have increased risk for severe COVID-19. Although mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccination provides protection in immunocompetent persons, immunogenicity in immunosuppressed patients with CID is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine the immunogenicity of mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with CID. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort study. SETTING: Two U.S. CID referral centers. PARTICIPANTS: Volunteer sample of adults with confirmed CID eligible for early COVID-19 vaccination, including hospital employees of any age and patients older than 65 years. Immunocompetent participants were recruited separately from hospital employees. All participants received 2 doses of mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 between 10 December 2020 and 20 March 2021. Participants were assessed within 2 weeks before vaccination and 20 days after final vaccination. MEASUREMENTS: Anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) IgG+ binding in all participants, and neutralizing antibody titers and circulating S-specific plasmablasts in a subset to assess humoral response after vaccination. RESULTS: Most of the 133 participants with CID (88.7%) and all 53 immunocompetent participants developed antibodies in response to mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, although some with CID developed numerically lower titers of anti-S IgG. Anti-S IgG antibody titers after vaccination were lower in participants with CID receiving glucocorticoids (n = 17) than in those not receiving them; the geometric mean of anti-S IgG antibodies was 357 (95% CI, 96 to 1324) for participants receiving prednisone versus 2190 (CI, 1598 to 3002) for those not receiving it. Anti-S IgG antibody titers were also lower in those receiving B-cell depletion therapy (BCDT) (n = 10). Measures of immunogenicity differed numerically between those who were and those who were not receiving antimetabolites (n = 48), tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (n = 39), and Janus kinase inhibitors (n = 11); however, 95% CIs were wide and overlapped. Neutralization titers seemed generally consistent with anti-S IgG results. Results were not adjusted for differences in baseline clinical factors, including other immunosuppressant therapies. LIMITATIONS: Small sample that lacked demographic diversity, and residual confounding. CONCLUSION: Compared with nonusers, patients with CID treated with glucocorticoids and BCDT seem to have lower SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced antibody responses. These preliminary findings require confirmation in a larger study. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust, Marcus Program in Precision Medicine Innovation, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, and National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.

A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of the Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus Vaccine in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Adults Aged 27 Years or Older: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol A5298.

Background: Adults living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at increased risk for anal and oropharyngeal cancer caused by human papillomavirus (HPV). The efficacy of HPV vaccines in this population is unknown. Methods: In this phase 3, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, we assigned HIV-infected adults aged ≥27 years to the quadrivalent HPV (types 6, 11, 16, 18) vaccine or placebo (1:1) stratified by sex and presence of anal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions on biopsy (bHSIL). The primary endpoint was vaccine efficacy against incident persistent anal infection with quadrivalent vaccine types or single detection at the final visit that were not present at baseline. Secondary endpoints included vaccine efficacy for anal bHSIL after week 52, persistent oral HPV infection. Results: A total of 575 participants were randomized. The Data and Safety Monitoring Board stopped the study early due to futility. Vaccine efficacy was 22% (95.1% confidence interval [CI], -31%, 53%) for prevention of persistent anal infection or single detection at the final visit, 0% (95% CI -44%, 31%) for improving bHSIL outcomes and 88% (95.1% CI 2%, 98%) for preventing persistent oral HPV infection, but was 32% (95.1% CI -80%, 74%) for 6-month persistent oral HPV infection or single detection at the final visit. Conclusions: These results do not support HPV vaccination of HIV-infected adults aged ≥27 years to prevent new anal HPV infections or to improve anal HSIL outcomes. However, our data suggest a role for prevention of oral HPV infections, but this finding should be confirmed in future studies. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT01461096.