Integrated Environmental Management and Planning based on Soil Erosion Susceptibility Scenarios.

This article presents the identification of soil use potential for different agropastoral and forest scenarios, using an indicator for erosion susceptibility from the spatialized Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). All USLE factors were spatialized using ArcGis 10.5 software, for the case study of the Cachoeira Cinco Veados Watershed-RS. To determine the R factor, we used the Cassol et al. 2007 equation and a 33-year series of rain data from six climatic stations. For the K factor, published values for the soil classes: Entisol, Ultisol, Oxisol, Molisols were used. From the DEM, the LS factor was obtained, considering six slope classes (0-3, 3-8, 8-20, 20-45, 45-75, >75%). In addition to the actual land use situation in the watershed, nine scenarios were proposed for the C factor. The value of 0.5 was used for the evaluation of conservation practices (P factor). Considering scenarios of current use situation along with the nine other scenarios, the results showed that, by identifying the most susceptible areas in each scenario, it is possible to construct an indicator map of soil compatibilities for each use, considering sustainable limits of soil losses. Therefore, this resulting map has potential use as instrument for land use planning and zoning studies.

Strategies for identifying pollution sources in a headwater catchment based on multi-scale water quality monitoring.

Rural headwater catchments are important to describe the connectivity of pollution sources to water bodies. Strategies to optimize water quality monitoring networks, as parameter definition, sampling, and statistical approach, have been widely discussed. The objectives of this study were to describe the spatial and temporal dynamics (intra- and inter-events) of water quality and to establish its implications for environmental monitoring programs. The monitoring was carried out in a rural headwater catchment (1.2 km2) with shallow soils, high slopes, and intense agricultural activity in Southern Brazil. To better describe the impact of agriculture on water resources, the monitoring strategy was based on definition of the best set of parameters and different sampling frequency to incorporate intra- and inter-event variability and statistical analysis approach. We also analyzed parameters in different sub-basins with physiographic traits. Three hydrological compartments were analyzed: surface flow, groundwater, and base flow. Physico-chemical parameters, the concentration of elements associated with agricultural activity, and biological parameters were evaluated. Total phosphorus and turbidity were the parameters most affected by agricultural activity. They reflected on the inter- and intra-events, the impacts of soil and water degradation by agricultural activity, and the precarious rural sanitation conditions. Spatiotemporal variability of the parameters characterizes the different mechanisms for transferring pollutants from diffuse sources to water bodies. Spatial and temporal patterns in water quality changes were used to discuss environmental monitoring strategies, such as parameter and sampling frequency definition, to improve soil and water conservation programs at the catchment scale.

Monitoring impacts of soil bund on spatial variation of teff and finger millet yield with Sentinel-2 and spectroradiometric data in Ethiopia.

Data from remote sensing devices are essential for monitoring environmental protection practices and estimating crop yields. However, yield estimates in Ethiopia are based on time-consuming surveys. We used Sentinel-2, spectroradiometeric, and ground-truthing data to estimate the grain yield (GY) of two major crops, teff, and finger millet, in Ethiopia's Aba Gerima catchment in 2020 and 2021. At the flowering stage, we performed supervised classification on October Sentinel-2 images and spectral reflectance measurement. We used regression models to identify and predict crop yields, as evaluated by the coefficient of determination (adjusted R2) and root mean square error (RMSE). The enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and normalized-difference vegetation index (NDVI) provided the best fit to the data among the vegetation indices used to predict teff and finger millet GY. Soil bund construction increased the majority of vegetation indices and GY of both crops. We discovered a strong correlation between GY and the satellite EVI and NDVI. However, NDVI and EVI had the greatest influence on teff GY (adjusted R2 = 0.83; RMSE = 0.14 ton/ha), while NDVI had the greatest influence on finger millet GY (adjusted R2 = 0.85; RMSE = 0.24 ton/ha). Teff GY ranged from 0.64 to 2.16 ton/ha for bunded plots and 0.60 to 1.85 ton/ha for non-bunded plots using Sentinel-2 data. Besides, finger millet GY ranged from 1.92 to 2.57 ton/ha for bunded plots and 1.81 to 2.38 ton/ha for non-bunded plots using spectroradiometric data. Our findings show that Sentinel-2- and spectroradiometeric-based monitoring can help farmers manage teff and finger millet to achieve higher yields, more sustainable food production, and better environmental quality in the area. The study's findings revealed a link between VIs and soil management practices in soil ecological systems. Model extrapolation to other areas will necessitate local validation.

Epilithic biofilms as a discriminating matrix for long-term and growing season pesticide contamination in the aquatic environment: Emphasis on glyphosate and metabolite AMPA.

The indiscriminate use of pesticides represents high ecological risk in aquatic systems. Recently, the inclusion of epilithic biofilms as a reactive matrix has shown potential in diagnosing the health of water resources. The objective of this study was to use multiple matrices (water, suspended sediments, and biofilms) to discriminate contamination degrees in catchments with long and recent history of intensive pesticide use and to monitor growing season pesticides transfer to watercourses. Two catchments were monitored: one representative of "modern agriculture" in a subtropical environment, and another representative of recent agricultural expansion over the Pampa Biome in subtropical Brazil. Glyphosate and AMPA were accumulated in the biofilms and were detected at all sites and at all monitoring times, in concentrations ranging from 195 to 7673 µg kg-1 and from 225 to 4180 µg kg-1, respectively. Similarly, the fungicide tebuconazole has always been found in biofilms. The biofilms made it possible to discriminate the long-term history of pesticide use in the catchments and even to identify the influx pulses of pesticides immediately after their application to crops, which was not possible with active water sampling and even with suspended sediment monitoring. It is strongly recommended that, in regions with intensive cultivation of soybeans and other genetically modified crops, the presence of glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA be permanently monitored, a practice still very scarce in the literature.

A leaf reflectance-based crop yield modeling in Northwest Ethiopia.

Crop yield prediction provides information to policymakers in the agricultural production system. This study used leaf reflectance from a spectroradiometer to model grain yield (GY) and aboveground biomass yield (ABY) of maize (Zea mays L.) at Aba Gerima catchment, Ethiopia. A FieldSpec IV (350-2,500 nm wavelengths) spectroradiometer was used to estimate the spectral reflectance of crop leaves during the grain-filling phase. The spectral vegetation indices, such as enhanced vegetation index (EVI), normalized difference VI (NDVI), green NDVI (GNDVI), soil adjusted VI, red NDVI, and simple ratio were deduced from the spectral reflectance. We used regression analyses to identify and predict GY and ABY at the catchment level. The coefficient of determination (R2), the root mean square error (RMSE), and relative importance (RI) were used for evaluating model performance. The findings revealed that the best-fitting curve was obtained between GY and NDVI (R2 = 0.70; RMSE = 0.065; P < 0.0001; RI = 0.19), followed by EVI (R2 = 0.65; RMSE = 0.024; RI = 0.61; P < 0.0001). While the best-fitting curve was obtained between ABY and GNDVI (R2 = 0.71; RI = 0.24; P < 0.0001), followed by NDVI (R2 = 0.77; RI = 0.17; P < 0.0001). The highest GY (7.18 ton/ha) and ABY (18.71 ton/ha) of maize were recorded at a soil bunded plot on a gentle slope. Combined spectral indices were also employed to predict GY with R2 (0.83) and RMSE (0.24) and ABY with R2 (0.78) and RMSE (0.12). Thus, the maize's GY and ABY can be predicted with acceptable accuracy using spectral reflectance indices derived from spectroradiometer in an area like the Aba Gerima catchment. An estimation model of crop yields could help policy-makers in identifying yield-limiting factors and achieve decisive actions to get better crop yields and food security for Ethiopia.

Use of soil spectral reflectance to estimate texture and fertility affected by land management practices in Ethiopian tropical highland.

As classical soil analysis is time-consuming and expensive, there is a growing demand for visible, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared (Vis-NIR-SWIR, wavelength 350-2500 nm) spectroscopy to predict soil properties. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of soil bunds on key soil properties and to develop regression models based on the Vis-NIR-SWIR spectral reflectance of soils in Aba Gerima, Ethiopia. Soil samples were collected from the 0-30 cm soil layer in 48 experimental teff (Eragrostis tef) plots and analysed for soil texture, pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (av. P), and potassium (av. K). We measured reflectance from air-dried, ground, and sieved soils with a FieldSpec 4 Spectroradiometer. We used regression models to identify and predict soil properties, as assessed by the coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), bias, and ratio of performance to deviation (RPD). The results showed high variability (CV ≥ 35%) and substantial variation (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) in soil texture, OC, and av. P in the catchment. Soil reflectance was lower from bunded plots. The pre-processing techniques, including multiplicative scatter correction, median filter, and Gaussian filter for OC, clay, and sand, respectively were used to transform the soil reflectance. Statistical results were: R2 = 0.71, RPD = 8.13 and bias = 0.12 for OC; R2 = 0.93, RPD = 2.21, bias = 0.94 for clay; and R2 = 0.85 with RPD = 7.54 and bias = 0.0.31 for sand with validation dataset. However, care is essential before applying the models to other regions. In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest spectroradiometry can supplement classical soil analysis. However, more research is needed to increase the prediction performance of Vis-NIR-SWIR reflectance spectroscopy to advance soil management interventions.

Spatial variability of soil chemical properties under different land-uses in Northwest Ethiopia.

The understanding of the spatial variation of soil chemical properties is critical in agriculture and the environment. To assess the spatial variability of soil chemical properties in the Fogera plain, Ethiopia, we used Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), pair-wise comparisons, descriptive analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA). In 2019, soil samples were collected at topsoil (a soil depth of 0-20 cm) from three representative land-uses (cropland, plantation forestland, and grazing lands) using a grid-sampling design. The variance analysis for soil pH, available phosphorus (avP), organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), electrical conductivity (EC), exchangeable potassium (exchK), exchangeable calcium (exchCa), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) revealed significant differences among the land-uses. The highest mean values of pH (8.9), avP (32.99 ppm), OC (4.82%), TN (0.39%), EC (2.28 dS m-1), and exchK (2.89 cmol (+) kg-1) were determined under grazing land. The lowest pH (6.2), OC (2.3%), TN (0.15%), and EC (0.11 dS m-1) were recorded in cultivated land. The PCA result revealed that the land-use change was responsible for most soil chemical properties, accounting for 93.32%. Soil maps can help identify the nutrient status, update management options, and increase productivity and profit. The expansion of cultivated lands resulted in a significant decrease in soil organic matter. Thus, soil management strategies should be tailored to replenish the soil nutrient content while maintaining agricultural productivity in the Fogera plain.

Effect of mono- and dicationic ionic liquids on the viscosity and thermogelation of methylcellulose in the semi-diluted regime.

Thermoreversible hydrogels are suitable in food products in order to improve texture and in biomedical applications as drug delivery vehicles. The properties of hydrogels affect their performance in those applications. In this paper, it is presented the effect of mono- (CnMIMBr) and dicationic (Cn(MIM)2Br2) imidazolium ionic liquids (ILs) on the viscosity and gelation of methylcellulose (MC) using rheology, micro differential scanning calorimetric and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques. Results show that the ILs affect the pattern of the sol-gel transition and display transition from the salt-out to the salt-in on the gelation temperature, decrease the gel strength and increase viscosity of MC solutions. This behavior can be explained by hydrophobic interaction between the ILs and the MC, which depends of the alkyl chain length of the ILs, type of ILs (conventional or bolaform) and the range of ILs concentration. In general, the presence of ILs decrease the MC gel strength, while dicationic ILs hampers their association on MC in comparison with monocationic ones. The findings highlight the role of ILs on gelation of MC opening possibilities for the design of new complex formulations.

Banana leaf and glucose mineralization and soil organic matter in microhabitats of banana plantations under long-term pesticide use.

Soil organic matter (SOM) and microbial activity are key components of soil quality and sustainability. In the humid tropics of Costa Rica 3 pesticide regimes were studied-fungicide (low input); fungicide and herbicide (medium input); and fungicide, herbicide, and nematicide (high input)-under continuous banana cultivation for 5 yr (young) or 20 yr (old) in 3 microhabitats-nematicide ring around plants, litter pile of harvested banana, and bare area between litter pile and nematicide ring. Soil samples were incubated sequentially in the laboratory: unamended, amended with glucose, and amended with ground banana leaves. Soil organic matter varied with microhabitat, being greatest in the litter pile, where microbes had the greatest basal respiration with ground banana leaf, whereas microbes in the nematicide ring had the greatest respiration with glucose. These results suggest that soil microbes adapt to specific microhabitats. Young banana plantations had similar SOM compared with old plantations, but the former had greater basal microbial respiration in unamended and in glucose-amended soil and greater first-order mineralization rates in glucose-amended soil, thus indicating soil biological quality decline over time. High pesticide input did not decrease microbial activity or mineralization rate in surface soil. In conclusion, microbial activity in tropical volcanic soil is highly adaptable to organic and inorganic inputs.

Precompression stress and compression index depend on the property used to represent the soil deformation in the compression curve / Pressão de preconsolidação e índice de compressão dependem da propriedade usada para representar a deformação do solo na curva de compressão

ABSTRACT: During linear deformation (h) in a soil sample, the variation of the void ratio with respect to deformation (dε/dh) and the respective variation of soil bulk density (dρ/dh) are identical only for a specific value of h. Consequently, if two compression curves are drawn for the same soil sample, one using ρ and the other using ε, there are differences in both the calculated precompression stress (σp) and compression index (Ic). In this study, we highlight the causes by a mathematical analysis and an experimental investigation, quantifying the differences in σp and Ic when using ε and ρ. σp and Ic were calculated for 103 compression curves of an ultisol and 193 of an oxisol. The σp (kPa) using ρ (σpρ) was greater than when using ε (σpε), and differences were rather independent of the soil type. The relations found by linear regression relating σpρ to σpε were σpρ=0.8186σpε+34.202 for the ultisol and σpρ=0.8878σpε+34.875 for the oxisol. In contrast, the used soil property (ρ or ε) as well as soil type affected Ic. Ic calculated using ρ was greater than when using ε in almost all (96%) of the cases for the ultisol, and in only 12% of the cases for the oxisol. For a wide range of ρ, evidence from this study indicated that the use of ρ overestimates σp when compared to the use of ε.

RESUMO: À medida que uma amostra de solo sofre deformação linear (h), a variação do índice de vazios em relação à deformação (dε/dh) e da respectiva variação da densidade do solo (dρ/dh) são coincidentes somente para um único valor de h. Decorrente disso, verifica-se experimentalmente que, para a mesma amostra de solo, há diferenças, tanto na pressão de preconsolidação (σp) como no índice de compressão (Ic), se forem determinados a partir das duas curvas de compressão, uma a base da ρ e outra a base do ε. A análise matemática, seguida da investigação experimental deste estudo, evidencia as causas e quantifica as diferenças na σp e no Ic, devido ao uso do ε ou ρ. A σp e o Ic foram calculados em 103 curvas de compressão de um Argissolo e em 193 de um Latossolo. A σp (kPa) com o uso da ρ (σpρ) foi maior que a σp com o uso do ε (σpε), e as diferenças dependeram menos do tipo de solo. As relações encontradas por regressão foram σpρ=0,8186 σpε+34,202 para o Argissolo e σpρ=0,8878 σpε+34,875 para o Latossolo. Diferentemente, o Ic foi afetado pela propriedade usada (ρ ou ε) para descrever a deformação e pelo tipo de solo. O Ic calculado com o uso da ρ foi maior que quando calculado com o uso do ε em quase todos os casos (96%) no Argissolo e raramente (em 12% dos casos) no Latossolo. Para uma ampla faixa de ρ, as evidências deste estudo indicam que o uso da ρ superestima a σp em relação ao uso do ε.

Condição de contorno para calibração de reflectômetro usado para medição de água no solo / Boundary conditions for calibration of reflectometer used to measure soil water

A reflectometria no domínio do tempo (TDR, na sigla em inglês) é uma técnica indireta usada para estimar o conteúdo de água do solo (θ) em função de sua constante dielétrica aparente (Ka). Neste estudo, o objetivo principal foi investigar as consequências de se incluir ou não medidas de Ka em água, na elaboração da curva de calibração do TDR. Foram avaliados horizontes de solo com 0,13kg kg-1, 0,23kg kg-1 e 0,64kg kg-1de argila. Para cada horizonte, a Ka foi medida em amostras desde solo seco até solo saturado. Adicionalmente, a Ka foi medida apenas em água. As medições foram feitas usando-se cabos coaxiais RGC58, 50 Ohm e sensor dupla haste metálica de 19cm. Para cada horizonte, foram formados dois conjuntos de dados com θ e Ka, um com e outro sem as medidas de Ka em água. Em cada conjunto, foi ajustada uma equação polinomial de terceiro grau, estimando θ em função de Ka. Com a inclusão das medidas de Ka em água, o polinômio de terceiro grau se ajustou melhor ao extremo saturado e preveniu erros na estimativa de θ. Como não há garantia de que as medidas de Ka de campo não serão maiores que as medidas de Ka das amostras saturadas em laboratório, recomenda-se a inclusão de medidas de Ka em água para obtenção da curva de calibração. Sem esse procedimento e sem verificação de campo das medidas de Ka, erros na estimativa de θ da ordem de 0,1m3 m-3 podem ocorrer facilmente.

The time domain reflectometry is a technique used to estimate soil water content (θ) as a function of its apparent dielectric constant (Ka). In this study the main objective was to investigate the consequences of including or not measures of Ka in water on the TDR calibration curve. Three horizons with different clay content were used: 0.13kg kg-1, 0.23kg kg-1 and 0.64kg kg-1. In each horizon, Ka was measured from dry to saturated soil. Additionally, Ka was measured in water. Measurements were made ​​using coaxial cables RGC58, 50 ohms and double stainless rod of 19cm. For each soil two data sets with θ and Ka were formed, one with and another without the addition of Ka measured in water. In each set a cubic polynomial equation was adjusted, estimating θ as a function of Ka. With the inclusion of Ka measured in water the cubic polynomial adjusted better the extreme saturated and avoided errors in the estimated θ. Since there is no certainty that the measures of Ka on field will not be greater than the measures of Ka in the saturated samples in the laboratory, it's recommend to include measures of Ka in water to obtain the calibration curve. Without this procedure and no field verification of Ka measurements, errors in estimated θ of the order of 0.1m3 m-3 can easily occur.

Soil hydrophobicity: comparative study of usual determination methods / Hidrofobicidade do solo: estudo comparativo dos métodos usuais de determinação

Hydrophobic or water repellent soils slowly absorb water because of the low wett ability of the soil particles which are coated with hydrophobic organic substances. These pose significant effects on plant growth, water infiltration and retention, surface runoff and erosion. The objective of this study was to compare the performance of tension micro-infiltrometer(TMI) and the water drop penetration time (WDPT) methods in the determination of the hydrophobicity index of eighteen soils from southern Brazil. Soil samples were collected from the 0-5cm soil layer to determine particle size distribution, organic matter content, hydrophobicity index of soil aggregates and droplet penetration time of disaggregated and sieved soil samples. For the TMI method the soil samples were subjected to minor changes due to the use of macroaggregates to preserve the distribution of solid constituents in the soil. Due to the homogeneity of the soil samples the WDPT method gave smaller coefficients of variation unlike the TMI method where the soil structure is preserved. However, both methods had low coefficients of variation, and are thus effective for determining the soil hydrophobicity, especially when the log hydrophobicity index or log WDPT is >1.

Solos hidrofóbicos ou repelentes à água geralmente absorvem-na lentamente, devido à reduzida sortividade proveniente do recobrimento das partículas do solo por substâncias orgânicas hidrofóbicas. A hidrofobicidade do solo é uma propriedade com significativos efeitos no crescimento de plantas, infiltração e retenção de água, escoamento superficial e erosão. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar o desempenho do método do microinfiltrômetro de tensão (TMI) e do método do tempo de penetração da gota (WDPT) na determinação do índice de hidrofobicidade em dezoito classes de solos do sul do Brasil. Amostras de solo foram coletadas na camada de 0-5cmpara a determinação da distribuição granulométrica, o conteúdo de matéria orgânica, índice de hidrofobicidade em agregados de solo e o tempo de penetração da gota em amostras de solo desagregadas e peneiradas. O método do microinfiltrômetro de tensão as amostras foram submetidas a menores alterações, devido ao uso de macroagregados, preservando a distribuição dos compostos no solo. Em função da homogeneização da amostra de solo, o método do WDPT pode apresentar menores coeficientes de variação, diferentemente do método do microinfiltrômetro em que a estrutura do solo é preservada. Contudo, ambos os métodos apresentaram baixos coeficientes de variação e, portanto, são efetivos na determinação da hidrofobicidade do solo, especialmente quando o log do índice de hidrofobicidade ou log WDPT é>1.

Least limiting water range and degree of compactness of soils under no-tillage / Intervalo hídrico ótimo e grau de compactação de solos sob plantio direto

The least limiting water range (LLWR) and degree of compactness (DC) can be useful indicators of soil physical quality and crop yield. This study focused on assessing of LLWR, DC and evaluation of critical values to crop growth of an Alfisol and Oxisol under no-till management. Undisturbed soil cores were taken from the layer 0.00 - 0.20 m depth. Soil water retention curve, soil penetration resistance curve, air-filled porosity and bulk density (Bd) were measured. The range of LLWR variation was limited by volumetric water content at field capacity and penetration resistance. Values of LLWR varied from 0.00 - 0.14 m3 m-3 to Alfisol and 0.00 - 0.04 m3 m-3 to Oxisol. The critical values of the Bd and DC for crop development were 1.79 Mg m-3 and 1.35 Mg m-3 and 96% and 74% to Alfisol and Oxisol, respectively. Further researches relating LLWR, DC and crop response are still required in soils with different conditions and management.

O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) e o grau de compactação (GC) são indicadores úteis da qualidade física do solo e produção de culturas. Objetivou-se avaliar o IHO, o GC e valores críticos do crescimento de plantas de um Argissolo e Latossolo sob semeadura direta. Amostras indeformadas de solo foram coletadas na camada de 0,00 a 0,20 m. Avaliou-se a curva de retenção de água e de resistência à penetração, a porosidade de aeração e a densidade do solo (Ds). A amplitude de variação do IHO foi limitada pela umidade na capacidade de campo e pela resistência à penetração com valores de 0,00 a 0,14 e de 0,00 a 0,04 e m3 m-3 para o Argissolo e Latossolo, respectivamente. Os valores críticos ao desenvolvimento de plantas de Ds e GC foram 1,79 e 1,35 Mg m-3 e 96% e 74%, respectivos para o Argissolo e Latossolo. Pesquisas futuras relacionando IHO, GC e resposta das culturas são ainda necessárias em solos com condições e manejos diferenciados.

Compressibilidade e elasticidade de um Vertissolo afetado pela intensidade de pastejo bovino / Compressibility and elasticity of a Vertissol affected by the intensity of grazing cattle

O fornecimento de pastagem em quantidade e qualidade em áreas de campo nativo é objetivo dos agropecuaristas. Neste trabalho, avaliou-se o impacto de três intensidades de pastejo por bovinos de corte, em área de campo natural melhorado com trevo branco e trevo vermelho, na densidade do solo (Ds), pressão de pré-consolidação (σp), índice de compressão (Ic) e no índice de relaxação (Ir) de um Vertissolo derivado de basalto. A área está localizada no campo experimental pertencente ao INIA Glencoe, na região Centro-Norte do Uruguai (Latitude: 32°41'S e Longitude: 56°16'O). O solo tem profundidade de 0,92m, textura argilo-siltoso (0,58kg kg-1 de argila) e estrutura granular. A intensidade de pastoreio configurou os tratamentos: sem pastoreio (SP), pastoreio com baixa carga (que consiste no pastoreio de 20 animais por hectare de 385kg aproximadamente de peso vivo, durante 4 dias) (PCB) e pastoreio com carga alta (40 animais por hectare de 385kg aproximadamente de peso vivo durante 4 dias) (PCA). A análise estatística constou de comparações entre médias de Ds, p, Ic e Ir do solo nos três tratamentos, pelo teste t de Student a 5% de significância. O PCA não provocou aumento de Ds em relação ao SP, nem alterações significativas na ?p e no Ic, indicando que o maior volume do material orgânico na superfície do Vertissolo proporcionou alta capacidade de suporte da carga, baixa susceptibilidade à compactação e alta elasticidade do solo. O maior Ir da camada superficial em relação à subsuperficial condicionou maior capacidade de recuperação de deformação, pois o PCA não provocou alterações significativas na σp e no Ic, em relação ao SP e PCB.

The supply of pasture quantity and quality in areas of native grassland is goal of ranchers. In this study we evaluated the impact of three grazing intensities by beef cattle in an area of unspoilt countryside with improved white clover and red cloveron soil bulk density (Bd), pre-consolidation pressure (sp), compression index (Ci) and the relaxation index (Ri) in a Vertisol derived from basalt. The experiment was conducted in an area of unspoilt countryside with improved white clover and red clover, subjected to three intensities of grazing, located in the experimental field of INIA Glencoe, in the Centre-North of Uruguay (Latitude: 32°41'S and Longitude: 56°16'W). The soil has a depth of 0.92m, clayey silt (0.58kg kg-1 clay) and has granular structure. The intensity of grazing configured the treatments: no grazing (SP), grazing with low load (consisting of grazing animals per hectare from 20 to approximately 385kg of body weight, during 4 days) (PCB) and grazing with high load (40 animals per hectare of approximately 385kg live weight, during 4 days) (PCA). Statistical analysis consisted of comparing averages of Bd, sp, Ci and Ri in the three soil treatments by Student's t test at 5% of significance. PCA caused no increase in relation to the Ds SP nor significant changes ?p and Ic, indicating that the bulk of the organic material provided on the surface of Vertisoil high load bearing capacity, low compaction susceptibility and high elasticity of the soil. The most superficial layer of Ri with respect to subsurface conditioned more resilient deformation, because the PCA were no significant changes in σp and Ic against the SP and PCB.

Valores críticos de densidade do solo avaliados por condições de contorno / Critical values of soil bulk density evaluated by boundary conditions

A associação irregular entre produção das culturas e densidade do solo (ρ) dificulta a aplicação da ρ para diagnóstico e manejo da compactação do solo. Com o objetivo de analisar esta problemática, este trabalho apresenta um procedimento matemático de simulação de limites de ρ por demanda hídrica e a dinâmica da resistência do solo à penetração (R) em função do tempo (t) de extração de água por evapotranspiração (E) da camada de solo ocupada pelo sistema radicular (L). Parâmetros de curvas de R e de retenção de água de um Latossolo foram utilizados nas simulações de ρ e R para diferentes condições de E, t e L. A ρ variou inversamente proporcional à E e t e diretamente proporcional à L. A equação para cálculo da ρ possibilitou, também, calcular a densidade crítica (ρc) obtida com o intervalo hídrico ótimo. Simulações para até seis dias de extração de água (t=6) de camadas de solo L com ρ igual à ρc para o solo deste estudo (1340kg m-3) indicam que a R máxima pode aumentar de 2 para 8 MPa, dependendo das condições de E (de 0,002 a 0,006m d-1) e L (de 0,2 a 0,6m). Baixos valores de R obtidos quando a E é pequena e L é grande caracterizam condições em que plantas podem produzir normalmente, mesmo que a ρ seja igual a ρc.

The irregular association between crop production and soil bulk density (ρ) weakens the application of ρ for diagnosis and management of soil compaction. With the aim of evaluating this problem, this study introduce a mathematical procedure to simulate limits of ρ for water demand and soil penetration resistance (R) dynamic as a function of the time (t) of water extraction by crop evapotranspiration (E) of the soil layer explored by plant roots (L). Parameters of both penetration resistance and water retention curves of an Oxisol were used in the simulations of ρ and R for different conditions of E, t and L. The ρ varied inversely proportional to E and t and directly proportional to L. The equation of ρ also allows calculating the critical bulk density (ρc) calculated with the least limit water range (LLWR). Simulations done for up to six days of water extraction (t=6) in soil layers L with ρc from the LLWR for the Oxisol (1340kg m-3) indicate that the maximum R may increase from 2 to 8MPa, depending upon the E (0.002 to 0.006m d-1 ) and L (0.2 to 0.6m) conditions. Low values of R obtained when the E is small and L is large characterize conditions for normal crops production even the ρ is equal to the ρc.

Hydro-physical processes and soil properties correlated with origin of soil hydrophobicity / Processos físico-hídricos e propriedades dos solos correlacionadas com a origem de hidrofobicidade nos solos

Hydrophobicity is the phenomenon where the soil has reduced wettability, usually associated with coating of soil particles by hydrophobic organic substances. This study aimed to provide a description of the hydrophobicity occurrence, highlight recent discoveries about the origin of phenomenon and discuss the main hydro-physical properties and chemical processes linked to the development of hydrophobic behavior in soils. Hydrophobicity is associated with other factors such as soil moisture, presence of some fungi species, particle size, soil pH and occurrence of burnings. The causative substances may be provided by local vegetation, through deposition or decomposition. The dependence and combination of different factors that influence hydrophobicity in soils lead to a spatial and temporal variability of the phenomenon, with negative consequences in the processes of infiltration and water percolation, affecting the three-dimensional distribution and dynamics of soil moisture. Thus, the occurrence of a hydrophobic character requires special attention, especially regarding soil use and management.

A hidrofobicidade é o fenômeno em que o solo apresenta dificuldade de se umedecer com a água, normalmente associado ao recobrimento das partículas do solo por substâncias orgânicas hidrofóbicas. Assim, este trabalho tem como objetivo fazer uma descrição da ocorrência da hidrofobicidade, ressaltando as recentes descobertas em relação à origem do fenômeno, enfocando as principais propriedades físico-hídricas e processos físico-químicos ligados ao desenvolvimento do caráter hidrofóbico no solo. As substâncias orgânicas responsáveis pela repelência podem recobrir total ou parcialmente as partículas, agregados e paredes dos poros, transmitindo diferentes graus de hidrofobicidade ao solo. Essas substâncias podem ser oriundas da vegetação local, via deposição ou decomposição, porém a hidrofobicidade pode estar associada a outros fatores como a umidade do solo, a presença de algumas espécies de fungos, a composição granulométrica, o pH do solo e a ocorrência de queimadas. A dependência e a combinação dos diferentes fatores que influenciam na ocorrência de hidrofobicidade nos solos levam a uma variabilidade espacial e temporal do fenômeno, com consequências negativas nos processos de infiltração e percolação da água, afetando a distribuição tridimensional e dinâmica da umidade do solo. Dessa forma, a ocorrência do caráter hidrofóbico exige uma atenção diferenciada, principalmente em relação ao uso e manejo do solo.

Compressibilidade de um Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo trafegado e escarificado / Compressibility of a trafficked and chiseled Alfisol

O tráfego de máquinas agrícolas é considerado uma das principais fontes da compactação do solo. Uma prática utilizada para minimizar os efeitos da compactação é a escarificação, porém a haste escarificadora pode causar compactação subsuperficial. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência do tráfego de máquinas na compressibilidade de um Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo distrófico arênico, de textura franco arenosa e avaliar o comportamento mecânico desse solo abaixo da linha de atuação da haste escarificadora. Os tratamentos investigados foram: semeadura direta há 13 anos, semeadura direta há 13 anos com tráfego adicional (intensidade de tráfego de 24,67Mg km ha-1), cultivo mínimo recém implantado e cultivo mínimo recém implantado com tráfego adicional. Para a determinação da densidade do solo, de índice de vazios, da pressão de preconsolidação e do coeficiente de compressão, foram coletadas amostras nas camadas de 0,0-0,10m, 0,10-0,20m, 0,20-0,30m e 0,30-0,40m. O tratamento semeadura direta há 13 anos apresentou a menor capacidade de suporte e maior suscetibilidade à compactação. A intensidade de tráfego de 24,67Mg km ha-1 aumentou a densidade do solo e reduziu o índice de vazios até 0,20m. A escarificação não afetou a pressão de preconsolidação e o coeficiente de compressão do solo na camada abaixo da linha de atuação da ponteira do escarificador.

Farm machinery wheeling is considered a major source of soil compaction. The use of chisel plow can minimize such effects, but the chisel can cause subsurface compaction. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of traffic and is present below the compaction layer thought compressive parameters of soil. The treatments investigated were: no-tillage, no-tillage with additional traffic (traffic intensity of 24.67Mg km ha-1), no-tillage chiseling recent implanted, no-tillage with additional traffic and chiseling recent implanted. For the density, void ratio, preconsolidation pressure and coefficient of compressibility determination in the layers 0.0-0.10m, 0.10-0.20m, 0.20-0.30m and 0.30 to 0.40m samples were collected. The treatment no-tillage showed the lowest load support capacity and greater susceptibility to compaction. The traffic intensity of 24.67Mg km ha-1 increased bulk density and decreased void ratio until 0.30m depth. The chisel plow did not affect the preconsolidation pressure and coefficient of compressibility of soil layer below the line of action of the chisel tip.

Compactação superficial de Latossolos sob integração lavoura: pecuária de leite no noroeste do Rio Grande do Sul / Surface compaction of oxisols with crops: dairy cattle production in northwest of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Em sistemas de integração lavoura-pecuária, o solo sofre pressões pelo pisoteio animal e tráfego de máquinas, alterando sua estrutura. Neste trabalho, avaliaram-se a densidade, a porosidade e a resistência do solo à penetração em cinco propriedades rurais que adotam o sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. Os resultados indicaram um aumento da compactação pelo pisoteio animal na camada superficial do solo (0,10m). Os valores de densidade estavam acima de 1,4Mg m-3, a macroporosidade abaixo de 0,10m³ m-3 e a resistência à penetração acima de 2MPa na umidade de 0,26kg kg-1, o que indica degradação física do solo. Assim, é necessário adotar práticas de manejo adequadas para a recuperação desses solos e evitar o aumento da compactação.

In crop and livestock integration system, pressure applied by animal trampling and farm-machinery wheeling changes soil structure. In this study soil bulk density, porosity and soil penetration resistance were evaluated in five farms which adopt the crop and livestock integration system. The results indicated an increase in soil compaction by cattle trampling in the surface soil layer (0.10m). The bulk density was above 1.4Mg m-3, the porosity is below 0,10m³m-3 and soil penetration resistance is above 2MPa at 0.26kg kg-1 soil moisture, which characterize soil physical degradation. Thus, adoption of management practices suitable for the soil physical amelioration and prevent further increase in the state of compaction is necessary.

Atributos físico-hidricos e produtividade de trigo em um Latossolo sob estados de compactação / Physical-hydraulic attributes and wheat yield in an oxisol under compaction states

Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de estados de compactação sobre os atributos físico-hídricos do solo e na produtividade da cultura do trigo (Triticum spp) em um Latossolo Vermelho Distroférrico sob sistema plantio direto. O cultivo do trigo foi em faixas (10x50m) nas quais foram implantados quatro tratamentos correspondentes aos estados de compactação: SC-unidade experimental sem passagem do rolo compactador, 1P-uma passada com o rolo compactador, 3P-três passadas e 5P-cinco passadas. Para avaliar a densidade (Ds), o volume de macroporos (Map) e de microporos (Mip) e a porosidade (Pt) do solo foram coletadas amostras indeformadas nas profundidades de 0,0-0,1, 0,1-0,2 e 0,2-0,3m, em cinco pontos aleatórios em cada tratamento. Outra amostra foi coletada na camada de 0,0-0,3m, para realizar o ensaio de Proctor normal e determinar a densidade máxima do solo (Dsmax). A taxa infiltração de água no solo foi avaliada por meio de anéis concêntricos, a densidade do solo relativa (Dsrel) foi calculada através da relacão entre a Ds e a Dsmax. Para determinar a produtividade do trigo delimitou-se uma área útil de 4,08m2, com cinco subamostras em cada tratamento. Com o aumento das passadas do rolo compactador, ocorreu redução da map e incremento da Ds. A produtividade do trigo e a taxa de infiltração de água no solo foram reduzidas, respectivamente, em 23 por cento e 97 por cento quando se comparou o tratamento SC em relação ao 5P. A Dsrel ótima para a produtividade do trigo no Latossolo estudado foi de 0,83.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of additional compaction on the physical-hydraulic attributes and wheat yield (Triticum spp) in an Oxisol under no-tillage. The cultivation was made in strips (10x50m) which were implanted in four treatments or states of compaction: SC - without additional compaction with a roller compactor 1P- one roller pass, 3P- tree rolear passes and 5P- five roler passes. To evaluate soil bulk density (Bd), macroporosity (Map), microporosity (Mip) and total porosity (Tp), undisturbed soil samples were collected from three layers: 0,0-0,1, 0,1-0, 2 and 0.2-0.3m, at five random locations in each treatment. Soil samples were also collected in the layer 0.0 to 0.3m to perform the Proctor test and determine the maximum soil bulk density (Bdmax). The water infiltration rate in the soil was evaluated by means of concentric rings. The relative soil bulk density (Bdrel) was calculated using the relationship between the Bd and Bdmax. To determine the wheat yield a useful area of 4.08m2 was delimited and harvested, with five replicates in each treatment. By increasing the number of roller compactor passes, there was a reduction in Map and increase in Bd. The wheat yield and the infiltration rate decreased, respectively, by 23 percent and 97 percent when comparing SC treatment on 5P. The optimal Bdrel wheat yield in this Oxisol was of 0.83.

Tensão e extração de água em mesa de tensão e coluna de areia, em dois solos com elevada densidade / Water tension and extraction by suction table and sand suction column in two soils with high bulk density

A determinação da umidade do solo submetido a uma dada tensão segue o pressuposto que o potencial mátrico da água do solo esteja em equilíbrio com a tensão aplicada. A verificação do tempo para a tensão da água do solo atingir o equilíbrio com a tensão de 6kPa foi efetuada em um Argissolo Vermelho Distrófico típico e um Latossolo Vermelho Distrófico típico. No Argissolo, o equilíbrio entre a tensão aplicada e o potencial mátrico da água do solo, para a maioria das amostras, foi verificado entre 72 e 96h, enquanto no Latossolo não houve equilíbrio no período de 168h. A tensão nas amostras não teve correlação significativa com a densidade do solo e não atingiu a tensão aplicada na mesa de tensão e na coluna de areia. No entanto, mais de 97 por cento da água passível de ser removida dos dois solos foi extraída até 48h, o que sugere que esse tempo é suficiente para a estimativa da umidade na tensão de 6kPa, independentemente do teor de argila do solo.

The determination of moisture content in soils under tension follows the assumption that the water matric potential is at equilibrium with an applied tension. The time the soil water tension reaches the equilibrium under the 6kPa tension was determined in Hapludalf and Hapludox clay soils. In the Hapludalf, the equilibrium between the applied tension and water matric potential, in most of the samples, was obtained between 72 and 96h, while in Hapludox, equilibrium was not reached until the 168h. The water tension in the samples had no significant correlation with bulk density and did not reach the tension applied on the suction table and sand suction column. Nevertheless, more than 97 percent of the soil water was extracted at 48h both in Hapludalf and Hapludox, suggesting that this time is sufficient to estimate the soil moisture at 6kPa tension, independently of clay content.