Network connectivity underlying episodic memory in children: Application of a pediatric brain tumor survivor injury model.

Episodic memory involves personal experiences paired with their context. The Medial Temporal, Posterior Medial, Anterior Temporal, and Medial Prefrontal networks have been found to support the hippocampus in episodic memory in adults. However, there lacks a model that captures how the structural and functional connections of these networks interact to support episodic memory processing in children. Using diffusion-weighted imaging, magnetoencephalography, and memory tests, we quantified differences in white matter microstructure, neural communication, and episodic memory performance, respectively, of healthy children (n = 23) and children with reduced memory performance. Pediatric brain tumor survivors (PBTS; n = 24) were used as a model, as they exhibit reduced episodic memory and perturbations in white matter and neural communication. We observed that PBTS, compared to healthy controls, showed significantly (p < 0.05) (1) disrupted white matter microstructure between these episodic memory networks through lower fractional anisotropy and higher mean and axial diffusivity, (2) perturbed theta band (4-7 Hz) oscillatory synchronization in these same networks through higher weighted phase lag indices (wPLI), and (3) lower episodic memory performance in the Transverse Patterning and Children's Memory Scale (CMS) tasks. Using partial-least squares path modeling, we found that brain tumor treatment predicted network white matter damage, which predicted inter-network theta hypersynchrony and lower verbal learning (directly) and lower verbal recall (indirectly via theta hypersynchrony). Novel to the literature, our findings suggest that white matter modulates episodic memory through effect on oscillatory synchronization within relevant brain networks. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Investigates the relationship between structural and functional connectivity of episodic memory networks in healthy children and pediatric brain tumor survivors Pediatric brain tumor survivors demonstrate disrupted episodic memory, white matter microstructure and theta oscillatory synchronization compared to healthy children Findings suggest white matter microstructure modulates episodic memory through effects on oscillatory synchronization within relevant episodic memory networks.

The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on cognitive performance in youth with persistent cognitive symptoms following concussion: a controlled pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Explore the feasibility, tolerability, and early efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) as a therapeutic intervention for youth with cognitive persistent post-concussion symptoms (PPCS). HYPOTHESIS: tDCS improves performance on a dual task working memory (WM) paradigm in youth with cognitive PPCS. PARTICIPANTS: Twelve youth experiencing cognitive PPCS. DESIGN: A quasi-randomized pilot trial was used to explore the tolerability of, and performance differences on, a dual N-Back WM task paired with active or sham tDCS over 3 sessions. MEASURES: Accuracy and reaction time on WM task and self-report of tDCS tolerability. RESULTS: Trends toward increases in accuracy from Day 1 to 3 seen in both groups. Active tDCS group performed better than sham on Day 2 in N-Back level N2 (p = .019), and marginally better than the sham group on Day 3 in level N3 (p = .26). Participants reported tDCS as tolerable; compared to the active tDCS group, the sham group reported more "considerable" (p = .078) and "strong" symptoms (p = .097). CONCLUSION: tDCS is a promising tool for enhancing WM performance and is a feasible and tolerable adjunct to behavioral interventions in youth with cognitive PPCS. A clinical trial to demonstrate efficacy is warranted.

Pediatric concussion working memory outcomes: a scoping review.

Objective: Characterize the working memory (WM) profile of children and youth who have experienced concussion by systematically synthesizing existing literature on the neuropsychological outcomes of these injuries.Methods: Implemented a peer-reviewed search strategy combining key concepts of concussion/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), WM, and pediatrics across MedLine, Embase, PsycINFO, and CINAHL. Included studies written in English with extractable results on a WM outcome measure in individuals aged 21 and under who experienced concussion. Applied narrative synthesis to identify trends in the literature. Assessed risk of bias and quality using the NHLBI's Quality Assessment of Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies.Results: 40 articles met inclusion criteria. 34/40 studies compared WM performance in children or youth with concussion to healthy controls, pre-injury performance, or normative values, of which 15 reported significantly lower WM performance in the concussion sample. Visual/spatial WM was more consistently impacted than verbal WM. Cognitive demanding dual-task conditions were also reliably impacted.Conclusion: Literature indicated that WM is vulnerable to negative outcomes following pediatric concussion, yet the nature of outcomes is variable. Clinicians and researchers should implement comprehensive and theoretically motivated WM assessments to better understand the WM components impacted by injury.

Impaired Recent, but Preserved Remote, Autobiographical Memory in Pediatric Brain Tumor Patients.

Medulloblastomas, the most common malignant brain tumor in children, are typically treated with radiotherapy. Refinement of this treatment has greatly improved survival rates in this patient population. However, radiotherapy also profoundly affects the developing brain and is associated with reduced hippocampal volume and blunted hippocampal neurogenesis. Such hippocampal (as well as extrahippocampal) abnormalities likely contribute to cognitive impairments in this population. While several aspects of memory have been examined in this population, the impact of radiotherapy on autobiographical memory has not previously been evaluated. Here we evaluated autobiographical memory in male and female patients who received radiotherapy for posterior fossa tumors (PFTs), including medulloblastoma, during childhood. Using the Children's Autobiographical Interview, we retrospectively assessed episodic and nonepisodic details for events that either preceded (i.e., remote) or followed (i.e., recent) treatment. For post-treatment events, PFT patients reported fewer episodic details compared with control subjects. For pretreatment events, PFT patients reported equivalent episodic details compared with control subjects. In a range of conditions associated with reduced hippocampal volume (including medial temporal lobe amnesia, mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, transient epileptic amnesia, frontal temporal dementia, traumatic brain injury, encephalitis, and aging), loss of episodic details (even in remote memories) accompanies hippocampal volume loss. It is therefore surprising that pretreatment episodic memories in PFT patients with reduced hippocampal volume are retained. We discuss these findings in light of the anterograde and retrograde impact on memory of experimentally suppressing hippocampal neurogenesis in rodents.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Pediatric medulloblastoma survivors develop cognitive dysfunction following cranial radiotherapy treatment. We report that radiotherapy treatment impairs the ability to form new autobiographical memories, but spares preoperatively acquired autobiographical memories. Reductions in hippocampal volume and cortical volume in regions of the recollection network appear to contribute to this pattern of preserved preoperative, but impaired postoperative, memory. These findings have significant implications for understanding disrupted mnemonic processing in the medial temporal lobe memory system and in the broader recollection network, which are inadvertently affected by standard treatment methods for medulloblastoma tumors in children.

Changes to memory structures in children treated for posterior fossa tumors.

Children treated for medulloblastoma (MB) exhibit long-term impairments in declarative memory, but the pathophysiology underlying this is unclear. Previous studies report declines in global white matter volume, but have failed to link this to declines in memory performance. We examined the effects of treatment on measures of global brain structure (i.e., total white and gray matter volume) and specific memory structures (i.e., hippocampus and uncinate fasciculus). We used volumetric MRI and diffusion tensor imaging in pediatric survivors of MB and one survivor of astrocytoma treated with cranial-spinal radiation (n = 20), and healthy controls (n = 13). Compared to controls, the survivor group exhibited reduced white matter volume, damage to the uncinate fasciculus, and a smaller right hippocampus. Critically, reduced hippocampal volume was not related to differences in brain volume, suggesting that the hippocampus may be especially vulnerable to treatment effects. A subset of the survivors (n = 10) also underwent memory testing using the Children's Memory Scale (CMS). Performance on the general index of the CMS was significantly correlated with measures of hippocampal volume and uncinate fasciculus. The examination of treatment effects on specific brain regions provides a better understanding of long-term cognitive outcome in children with brain tumors, particularly medulloblastoma.

A complementary analytic approach to examining medial temporal lobe sources using magnetoencephalography.

Neuropsychological and neuroimaging findings reveal that the hippocampus is important for recognition memory. However, it is unclear when and whether the hippocampus contributes differentially to recognition of previously studied items (old) versus novel items (new), or contributes to a general processing requirement that is necessary for recognition of both types of information. To address this issue, we examined the temporal dynamics and spectral frequency underlying hippocampal activity during recognition of old/new complex scenes using magnetoencephalography (MEG). In order to provide converging evidence to existing literature in support of the potential of MEG to localize the hippocampus, we reconstructed brain source activity using the beamformer method and analyzed three types of processing-related signal changes by applying three different analysis methods: (1) Synthetic aperture magnetometry (SAM) revealed event related and non-event-related spectral power changes; (2) Inter-trial coherence (ITC) revealed time-locked changes in neural synchrony; and (3) Event-related SAM (ER-SAM) revealed averaged event-related responses over time. Hippocampal activity was evident for both old and new information within the theta frequency band and during the first 250 ms following stimulus onset. The early onset of hippocampal responses suggests that general comparison processes related to recognition of new/old information may occur obligatorily.

Immediate memory consequences of the effect of emotion on attention to pictures.

Emotionally arousing stimuli are at once both highly attention grabbing and memorable. We examined whether emotional enhancement of memory (EEM) reflects an indirect effect of emotion on memory, mediated by enhanced attention to emotional items during encoding. We tested a critical prediction of the mediation hypothesis-that regions conjointly activated by emotion and attention would correlate with subsequent EEM. Participants were scanned with fMRI while they watched emotional or neutral pictures under instructions to attend to them a lot or a little, and were then given an immediate recognition test. A region in the left fusiform gyrus was activated by emotion, voluntary attention, and subsequent EEM. A functional network, different for each attention condition, connected this region and the amygdala, which was associated with emotion and EEM, but not with voluntary attention. These findings support an indirect cortical mediation account of immediate EEM that may complement a direct modulation model.

Cortical Thickness Changes and Their Relationship to Dual-Task Performance following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Youth.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is common in youth, especially in those who participate in sport. Recent investigations from our group have shown that asymptomatic children and adolescents with mTBI continue to exhibit alterations in neural activity and cognitive performance compared with those without a history of mTBI. This is an intriguing finding, given that current return-to-learn and return-to-play protocols rely predominately on subjective symptom reports, which may not be sensitive enough to detect subtle injury-related changes. As a result, youth may be at greater risk for re-injury and long-term consequences if they are cleared for activity while their brains continue to be compromised. It is currently unknown whether mTBI also affects brain microstructure in the developing brain, particularly cortical thickness, and whether such changes are also related to cognitive performance. The present study examined cortical thickness in 13 asymptomatic youth (10-14 years old) who had sustained an mTBI 3-8 months prior to testing compared with 14 age-matched typically developing controls. Cortical thickness was also examined in relation to working memory performance during single and dual task paradigms. The results show that youth who had sustained an mTBI had thinner cortices in the left dorsolateral prefrontal region and right anterior and posterior inferior parietal lobes. Additionally, cortical thinning was associated with slower reaction time during the dual-task condition in the injured youth only. The results also point to a possible relationship between functional and structural alterations as a result of mTBI in youth, and lend evidence for neural changes beyond symptom resolution.

Exercise training for neural recovery in a restricted sample of pediatric brain tumor survivors: a controlled clinical trial with crossover of training versus no training.

Background: Exercise promotes repair processes in the mouse brain and improves cognition in both mice and humans. It is not known whether these benefits translate to human brain injury, particularly the significant injury observed in children treated for brain tumors. Methods: We conducted a clinical trial with crossover of exercise training versus no training in a restricted sample of children treated with radiation for brain tumors. The primary outcome was change in brain structure using MRI measures of white matter (ie, fractional anisotropy [FA]) and hippocampal volume [mm3]). The secondary outcome was change in reaction time (RT)/accuracy across tests of attention, processing speed, and short-term memory. Linear mixed modeling was used to test the effects of time, training, training setting, and carryover. Results: Twenty-eight participants completed training in either a group (n=16) or a combined group/home (n=12) setting. Training resulted in increased white matter FA (Δ=0.05, P<.001). A carryover effect was observed for participants ~12 weeks after training (Δ=0.05, P<.001). Training effects were observed for hippocampal volume (Δ=130.98mm3; P=.001) and mean RT (Δ=-457.04ms, P=0.36) but only in the group setting. Related carryover effects for hippocampal volume (Δ=222.81mm3, P=.001), and RT (Δ=-814.90ms, P=.005) were also observed. Decreased RT was predicted by increased FA (R=-0.62, P=.01). There were no changes in accuracy. Conclusions: Exercise training is an effective means for promoting white matter and hippocampal recovery and improving reaction time in children treated with cranial radiation for brain tumors.

White matter and information processing speed following treatment with cranial-spinal radiation for pediatric brain tumor.

OBJECTIVE: We compared the structure of specific white matter tracts and information processing speed between children treated for posterior fossa tumors with cranial-spinal radiation (n = 30), or with surgery +/- focal radiation (n = 29), and healthy children (n = 37). METHOD: Probabilistic diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography was used to delineate the inferior longitudinal fasciculi, optic radiation, inferior frontal occipital fasciculi, and uncinate fasciculi bilaterally. Information processing speed was measured using the coding and symbol search subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and visual matching, pair cancellation, and rapid picture naming subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Ability, 3rd revision. We examined group differences using repeated measures MANOVAs and path analyses were used to test the relations between treatment, white matter structure of the tracts, and information processing speed. RESULTS: DTI indices of the optic radiations, the inferior longitudinal fasciculi, and the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculi differed between children treated with cranial-spinal radiation and children treated with surgery +/- focal radiation, and healthy controls (p = .045). Children treated with cranial-spinal radiation also exhibited lower processing speed scores relative to healthy control subjects (p = .002). Notably, we observed that group differences in information processing speed were related to the structure of the right optic radiation (p = .002). CONCLUSION: We show that cranial-spinal radiation may have a negative impact on information processing speed via insult to the right optic radiations. (PsycINFO Database Record

White and Gray Matter Abnormalities After Cranial Radiation in Children and Mice.

PURPOSE: Pediatric patients treated with cranial radiation are at high risk of developing lasting cognitive impairments. We sought to identify anatomical changes in both gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM) in radiation-treated patients and in mice, in which the effect of radiation can be isolated from other factors, the time course of anatomical change can be established, and the effect of treatment age can be more fully characterized. Anatomical results were compared between species. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Patients were imaged with T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) after radiation treatment. Nineteen radiation-treated patients were divided into groups of 7 years of age and younger (7-) and 8 years and older (8+) and were compared to 41 controls. C57BL6 mice were treated with radiation (n=52) or sham treated (n=52) between postnatal days 16 and 36 and then assessed with in vivo and/or ex vivo MRI. In both cases, measurements of WM and GM volume, cortical thickness, area and volume, and hippocampal volume were compared between groups. RESULTS: WM volume was significantly decreased following treatment in 7- and 8+ treatment groups. GM volume was unchanged overall, but cortical thickness was slightly increased in the 7- group. Results in mice mostly mirrored these changes and provided a time course of change, showing early volume loss and normal growth. Hippocampal volume showed a decreasing trend with age in patients, an effect not observed in the mouse hippocampus but present in the olfactory bulb. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in mice treated with cranial radiation are similar to those in humans, including significant WM and GM alterations. Because mice did not receive any other treatment, the similarity across species supports the expectation that radiation is causative and suggests mice provide a representative model for studying impaired brain development after cranial radiation and testing novel treatments.

Association with emotional information alters subsequent processing of neutral faces.

The processing of emotional as compared to neutral information is associated with different patterns in eye movement and neural activity. However, the 'emotionality' of a stimulus can be conveyed not only by its physical properties, but also by the information that is presented with it. There is very limited work examining the how emotional information may influence the immediate perceptual processing of otherwise neutral information. We examined how presenting an emotion label for a neutral face may influence subsequent processing by using eye movement monitoring (EMM) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) simultaneously. Participants viewed a series of faces with neutral expressions. Each face was followed by a unique negative or neutral sentence to describe that person, and then the same face was presented in isolation again. Viewing of faces paired with a negative sentence was associated with increased early viewing of the eye region and increased neural activity between 600 and 1200 ms in emotion processing regions such as the cingulate, medial prefrontal cortex, and amygdala, as well as posterior regions such as the precuneus and occipital cortex. Viewing of faces paired with a neutral sentence was associated with increased activity in the parahippocampal gyrus during the same time window. By monitoring behavior and neural activity within the same paradigm, these findings demonstrate that emotional information alters subsequent visual scanning and the neural systems that are presumably invoked to maintain a representation of the neutral information along with its emotional details.

Hippocampal and neocortical oscillatory contributions to visuospatial binding and comparison.

Over 50 years of research has revealed a critical role for the hippocampus in the formation of long-term declarative memories. More recent evidence has specified the functions of the hippocampus as the binding and comparison of memory representations that may be used under shorter, as well as longer, delays (Olsen, Moses, Riggs, & Ryan, 2012). Hippocampal neural oscillations (e.g., theta rhythm) have been studied extensively in animals; however, the oscillations that underlie binding, comparison, and their relationship to memory performance remain to be fully explored in humans. Here magnetoencephalography was used to examine theta oscillations within the hippocampus and cortex to address this critical gap in the literature. The task consisted of (a) an encoding phase in which participants had to integrate the relative spatial positions among 3 sequentially presented objects, (b) a delay phase, and (c) a test phase in which all study objects were presented simultaneously in novel locations, and participants had to indicate whether the relative positions had changed. Theta power in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) increased across encoding and delay periods during which binding and maintenance processes dominate, while comparison of spatial relations at test was associated with greater theta power in right lateral PFC and intraparietal sulcus for manipulated versus intact trials. Critically, relational memory was positively related to hippocampal theta power increases across the encoding period. These findings provide novel evidence for the role of hippocampal theta in the incremental formation and retention of relations across space and time.

The hippocampus supports multiple cognitive processes through relational binding and comparison.

It has been well established that the hippocampus plays a pivotal role in explicit long-term recognition memory. However, findings from amnesia, lesion and recording studies with non-human animals, eye-movement recording studies, and functional neuroimaging have recently converged upon a similar message: the functional reach of the hippocampus extends far beyond explicit recognition memory. Damage to the hippocampus affects performance on a number of cognitive tasks including recognition memory after short and long delays and visual discrimination. Additionally, with the advent of neuroimaging techniques that have fine spatial and temporal resolution, findings have emerged that show the elicitation of hippocampal responses within the first few 100 ms of stimulus/task onset. These responses occur for novel and previously viewed information during a time when perceptual processing is traditionally thought to occur, and long before overt recognition responses are made. We propose that the hippocampus is obligatorily involved in the binding of disparate elements across both space and time, and in the comparison of such relational memory representations. Furthermore, the hippocampus supports relational binding and comparison with or without conscious awareness for the relational representations that are formed, retrieved and/or compared. It is by virtue of these basic binding and comparison functions that the reach of the hippocampus extends beyond long-term recognition memory and underlies task performance in multiple cognitive domains.

The role of overt attention in emotion-modulated memory.

The presence of emotional stimuli results in a central/peripheral tradeoff effect in memory: memory for central details is enhanced at the cost of peripheral items. It has been assumed that emotion-modulated differences in memory are the result of differences in attention, but this has not been tested directly. The present experiment used eye movement monitoring as an index of overt attention allocation and mediation analysis to determine whether differences in attention were related to subsequent memory. Participants viewed negative and neutral scenes surrounded by three neutral objects and were then given a recognition memory test. The results revealed evidence in support of a central/peripheral tradeoff in both attention and memory. However, contrary with previous assumptions, whereas attention partially mediated emotion-enhanced memory for central pictures, it did not explain the entire relationship. Further, although centrally presented emotional stimuli led to decreased number of eye fixations toward the periphery, these differences in viewing did not contribute to emotion-impaired memory for specific details pertaining to the periphery. These findings suggest that the differential influence of negative emotion on central versus peripheral memory may result from other cognitive influences in addition to overt visual attention or on postencoding processes.

Eye movement monitoring of memory.

Explicit (often verbal) reports are typically used to investigate memory (e.g. "Tell me what you remember about the person you saw at the bank yesterday."), however such reports can often be unreliable or sensitive to response bias, and may be unobtainable in some participant populations. Furthermore, explicit reports only reveal when information has reached consciousness and cannot comment on when memories were accessed during processing, regardless of whether the information is subsequently accessed in a conscious manner. Eye movement monitoring (eye tracking) provides a tool by which memory can be probed without asking participants to comment on the contents of their memories, and access of such memories can be revealed on-line. Video-based eye trackers (either head-mounted or remote) use a system of cameras and infrared markers to examine the pupil and corneal reflection in each eye as the participant views a display monitor. For head-mounted eye trackers, infrared markers are also used to determine head position to allow for head movement and more precise localization of eye position. Here, we demonstrate the use of a head-mounted eye tracking system to investigate memory performance in neurologically-intact and neurologically-impaired adults. Eye movement monitoring procedures begin with the placement of the eye tracker on the participant, and setup of the head and eye cameras. Calibration and validation procedures are conducted to ensure accuracy of eye position recording. Real-time recordings of X,Y-coordinate positions on the display monitor are then converted and used to describe periods of time in which the eye is static (i.e. fixations) versus in motion (i.e., saccades). Fixations and saccades are time-locked with respect to the onset/offset of a visual display or another external event (e.g. button press). Experimental manipulations are constructed to examine how and when patterns of fixations and saccades are altered through different types of prior experience. The influence of memory is revealed in the extent to which scanning patterns to new images differ from scanning patterns to images that have been previously studied. Memory can also be interrogated for its specificity; for instance, eye movement patterns that differ between an identical and an altered version of a previously studied image reveal the storage of the altered detail in memory. These indices of memory can be compared across participant populations, thereby providing a powerful tool by which to examine the organization of memory in healthy individuals, and the specific changes that occur to memory with neurological insult or decline.

Eye movement monitoring reveals differential influences of emotion on memory.

Research shows that memory for emotional aspects of an event may be enhanced at the cost of impaired memory for surrounding peripheral details. However, this has only been assessed directly via verbal reports which reveal the outcome of a long stream of processing but cannot shed light on how/when emotion may affect the retrieval process. In the present experiment, eye movement monitoring (EMM) was used as an indirect measure of memory as it can reveal aspects of online memory processing. For example, do emotions modulate the nature of memory representations or the speed with which such memories can be accessed? Participants viewed central negative and neutral scenes surrounded by three neutral objects and after a brief delay, memory was assessed indirectly via EMM and then directly via verbal reports. Consistent with the previous literature, emotion enhanced central and impaired peripheral memory as indexed by eye movement scanning and verbal reports. This suggests that eye movement scanning may contribute and/or is related to conscious access of memory. However, the central/peripheral tradeoff effect was not observed in an early measure of eye movement behavior, i.e., participants were faster to orient to a critical region of change in the periphery irrespective of whether it was previously studied in a negative or neutral context. These findings demonstrate emotion's differential influences on different aspects of retrieval. In particular, emotion appears to affect the detail within, and/or the evaluation of, stored memory representations, but it may not affect the initial access to those representations.

Worth a glance: using eye movements to investigate the cognitive neuroscience of memory.

Results of several investigations indicate that eye movements can reveal memory for elements of previous experience. These effects of memory on eye movement behavior can emerge very rapidly, changing the efficiency and even the nature of visual processing without appealing to verbal reports and without requiring conscious recollection. This aspect of eye movement based memory investigations is particularly useful when eye movement methods are used with special populations (e.g., young children, elderly individuals, and patients with severe amnesia), and also permits use of comparable paradigms in animals and humans, helping to bridge different memory literatures and permitting cross-species generalizations. Unique characteristics of eye movement methods have produced findings that challenge long-held views about the nature of memory, its organization in the brain, and its failures in special populations. Recently, eye movement methods have been successfully combined with neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI, single-unit recording, and magnetoencephalography, permitting more sophisticated investigations of memory. Ultimately, combined use of eye-tracking with neuropsychological and neuroimaging methods promises to provide a more comprehensive account of brain-behavior relationships and adheres to the "converging evidence" approach to cognitive neuroscience.

Seeing sounds and hearing sights: the influence of prior learning on current perception.

It is well known that previous perceptual experiences alter subsequent perception, but the details of the neural underpinnings of this general phenomenon are still sketchy. Here, we ask whether previous experiences with an item (such as seeing a person's face) leads to the alteration of the neural correlates related to processing of the item as such, or whether it creates additional associative connections between such substrates and those activated during prior experience. To address this question, we used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to identify neural changes accompanying subjects' viewing of unfamiliar versus famous faces and hearing the names of unfamiliar versus famous names. We were interested in the nature of the involvement of auditory brain regions in the viewing of faces, and in the involvement of visual regions in the hearing of names. Evoked responses from MEG recordings for the names and faces conditions were localized to auditory and visual cortices, respectively. Unsurprisingly, peak activation strength of evoked responses was larger for famous versus nonfamous names within the superior temporal gyrus (STG), and was similar for famous and nonfamous faces in the occipital cortex. More relevant to the issue of experience on perception, peak activation strength in the STG was larger for viewed famous versus nonfamous faces, and peak activation within the occipital cortex was larger for heard famous versus nonfamous names. Critically, these experience-related responses were present within 150-250 msec of stimulus onset. These findings support the hypothesis that prior experiences may influence processing of faces and names such that perception encompasses more than what is imparted on the senses.