Effects of intravenous ethyl pyruvate on cardiopulmonary variables and quality of recovery from anesthesia in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of intravenous ethyl pyruvate, an anti-inflammatory with putative benefits in horses with endotoxemia, on cardiopulmonary variables during anesthesia and the quality of anesthetic recovery. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized, crossover, blinded experimental design. ANIMALS: A total of six healthy Standardbred geldings, aged 13 ± 3 years and weighing 507 ± 66 kg (mean ± standard deviation). METHODS: Horses were anesthetized for approximately 90 minutes on two occasions with a minimum of 2 weeks apart using xylazine for sedation, ketamine and diazepam for induction, and isoflurane in oxygen for maintenance. Lactated Ringer's solution (LRS; 10 mL kg-1 hour-1) was administered during anesthesia. Treatments were randomized and administered starting approximately 30 minutes after induction of anesthesia and infused over 60 minutes: LRS (1 L) or ethyl pyruvate (150 mg kg-1 in 1 L LRS). Invasive arterial pressures, heart rate, respiratory rate and end-tidal carbon dioxide tensions were recorded every 5 minutes for the duration of anesthesia. Arterial blood gases, glucose and lactate concentrations were measured every 20 minutes. Anesthetic recovery was video recorded, stored, and subsequently rated by two individuals blinded to treatments. Total recovery time, time to extubation, number of attempts and time to sternal recumbency, number of attempts to stand and time to stand were recorded. Quality of recovery was analyzed. Data between treatments and within a treatment were assessed using two-way repeated-measures anova and a Pearson correlation coefficient, significant at p < 0.05. RESULTS: All horses completed the study. No significant differences were detected between the ethyl pyruvate and LRS treatments for either the cardiopulmonary variables or quality of recovery from anesthesia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results suggest that intravenous ethyl pyruvate can be administered to healthy anesthetized horses with minimal impact on the cardiopulmonary variables studied or the quality of recovery from anesthesia.

Feline post-sterilization hyphema.

OBJECTIVE: To determine incidence and risk factors of post-sterilization hyphema in shelter cats. ANIMALS STUDIED: Retrospective medical record review of 1204 cats and prospective screening of 195 cats. PROCEDURES: The study consisted of three parts: (a) Survey responses were collected from 20 veterinarians, who perform high-quality high-volume spay-neuter (HQHVSN) in both shelter and public clinic settings; (b) medical records of 1204 cats were analyzed retrospectively over a 14-month time period; and (c) ophthalmic examinations, including tonometry, were performed prospectively on 195 cats before and after sterilization surgery over 8 weeks. RESULTS: Nine of 20 surveyed veterinarians reported having witnessed hyphema in cats following sterilization surgery. Retrospective review of 1204 medical record and prospective screening of 195 cats showed that three juvenile (<1 year of age) male cats (<2 kg) developed hyphema within 1 hour following surgery (0.2% incidence). In all three affected cats, anesthesia was induced with tiletamine/zolazepam (3 of 523 cats induced with this drug combination; 0.6% incidence), and hyphema resolved within 20 hours. Mean intraocular pressures as measured by Icare® TonoVet were (mean ± standard deviation) 11.5 ± 3.8 mm Hg and 21.7 ± 4.6 mm Hg for juvenile (<1 year of age) and adult (>1 year of age) cats, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Survey responses and three observed cases confirm the existence of feline post-sterilization hyphema with an estimated incidence of 0.2%. The underlying mechanism for this occurrence remains unknown.

A retrospective study of fecal output and postprocedure colic in 246 horses undergoing standing sedation with detomidine, or general anesthesia with or without detomidine.

OBJECTIVE: To determine time to first passage of feces, total fecal piles and incidence of colic in the first 24 hours postprocedure in horses undergoing standing sedation with detomidine, or general anesthesia with or without detomidine. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. ANIMALS: A total of 246 horses. METHODS: Records of all horses that underwent standing sedation or general anesthesia between December 2012 and March 2016 were reviewed. Horses aged <6 months, admitted for colic or cesarean section, with inadequate data, and those not administered xylazine and/or detomidine were excluded. Records included patient signalment, fasting duration, procedure performed, drugs administered, time to first feces, number of fecal piles during 24 hours postprocedure and mention of colic. Chi-square, Fisher's exact and Tukey's post hoc comparison tests were used. Parametric data were reported as mean ± standard deviation with significance defined as p <0.05. RESULTS: In total, 116 and 57 horses underwent general anesthesia without detomidine (group GA) and with detomidine (group GA-D), respectively, and remaining 73 horses underwent standing sedation with detomidine (group S-D). Detomidine dose was significantly higher in group S-D than in group GA-D. Time to first feces was longer (7.1 ± 4.2 hours), and group S-D horses passed one fewer fecal pile (6.3 ± 2.4) than group GA horses. There was no interaction between detomidine treatment and preprocedure food withholding and the time to first feces or the number of fecal piles in the first 24 hours postprocedure. Overall, seven horses (2.8%) showed signs of colic (five, one and one in GA, GA-D and S-D, respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Detomidine administration, as part of an anesthetic protocol or for standing sedation procedures, should not be expected to contribute to postprocedural colic.

Alfaxalone alone or combined with midazolam or ketamine in dogs: intubation dose and select physiologic effects.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the intubation dose and select physiologic effects of alfaxalone alone or in combination with midazolam or ketamine in dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, clinical study. ANIMALS: Fifty-three healthy client-owned dogs [mean±standard deviation (SD)] 5.1±1.8 years, 27±15.4 kg, scheduled for elective orthopedic surgery. METHODS: After premedication with acepromazine (0.02 mg kg-1) and hydromorphone (0.1 mg kg-1) intramuscularly, alfaxalone (0.25 mg kg-1) was administered intravenously over 15 seconds followed immediately by 0.9% saline (AS), midazolam (0.3 mg kg-1; AM), ketamine (1 mg kg-1; AK1), or ketamine (2 mg kg-1; AK2). Additional alfaxalone (0.25 mg kg-1 increments) was administered as required to permit endotracheal intubation. The incidence of apnea and the time from intubation until spontaneous movement were recorded. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure were recorded 15 minutes after premedication, after intubation and 2, 5, 10 and 15 minutes thereafter. Blood was collected for measurement of serum glucose and insulin concentrations before induction, after intubation and at 2, 5, 10 and 50 minutes. Data were analyzed by split-plot anova with Bonferroni adjustment for the number of group comparisons. RESULTS: Mean±SD alfaxalone mg kg-1 doses required for endotracheal intubation were AS (1.0±0.4), AM (0.4±0.2), AK1 (0.5±0.3) and AK2 (0.5±0.4) (p=0.0005). Differences in cardiopulmonary variables among groups were minor; HR decreased in AS, while in other groups, HR increased transiently postintubation. Incidence of apnea in AS was 54% with no significant difference among groups. Midazolam significantly prolonged time from intubation until spontaneous movement (p<0.002). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Midazolam and ketamine reduced the alfaxalone dose required for endotracheal intubation. Serum glucose and insulin concentrations were not influenced by administration of alfaxalone alone or when administered with midazolam or ketamine.

Systemic and anti-nociceptive effects of prolonged lidocaine, ketamine, and butorphanol infusions alone and in combination in healthy horses.

BACKGROUND: Prolonged drug infusions are used to treat horses with severe signs of pain, but can be associated with altered gastrointestinal transit. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of prolonged constant rate infusions (CRI) of lidocaine (L), butorphanol (B), and ketamine (K) alone and in combination on gastrointestinal transit, behavior, and thermal nociceptive threshold in healthy horses. METHODS: Eight healthy adult horses were used in a randomized, cross-over, blinded, prospective experimental trial. Interventions were saline, L, K, B, LK, LB, BK, and LBK as an intravenous CRI for 96 hours. Drugs were mixed or diluted in saline; following a bolus, CRI rate was 0.15 mL/kg/hr with drug doses as follows: L - 1.3 mg/kg then 3 mg/kg/hr; B - 0.018 mg/kg then 0.013 mg/kg/hr; K - 0.55 mg/kg then 0.5 mg/kg/hr. Two-hundred plastic beads were administered intragastrically by nasogastric tube immediately prior to the bolus. Feces were collected every 2 hours, weighed, and beads manually retrieved. Behavior was scored every 2 hours, vital parameters every 6 hours, and thermal nociceptive threshold every 12 hours for 96 hours. Drug concentrations in the LBK solution were tested every 6 hours for 72 hours. RESULTS: Four of 64 trials (3 LBK, 1 BK) were discontinued early due to signs of abdominal discomfort. There were no apparent differences between groups in vital parameters or thermal threshold. Transit time was delayed for LB and LBK with a corresponding decrease in fecal weight that was most severe in the final 24 hours of infusion. Significant changes in behavior scores, vital parameters, or thermal threshold were not observed. The concentration of each drug in the combined solution declined by less than 31% over the sampling period. CONCLUSIONS: Drug combinations containing butorphanol cause an apparent delay in gastrointestinal transit in healthy horses without substantially affecting somatic nociception at the doses studied. Combinations of lidocaine and ketamine may have less impact on gastrointestinal transit than infusions combined with butorphanol. Further work is needed to determine the effects of these drugs in painful or critically ill patients.

Learning confounds algometric assessment of mechanical thresholds in normal dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To perform algometric readings in normal dogs in a design that would assess possible confounding factors. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: Skeletally mature spayed female, intact male and castrated male retriever or retriever mix dogs without orthopedic or neurologic disease (n = 19). METHODS: Twelve common surgical sites were selected for algometric pressure testing. Threshold response was defined as a conscious recognition of the stimulus, and recorded in Newtons. Sites were tested in the same order, and the testing sequence repeated 3 times on each side of the dog. Dogs were tested in the morning and evening of the same day and was repeated 10-14 days later, allowing 4 separate data collections for each dog. RESULTS: Data were analyzed using ANOVA or ANCOVA. When all the data were included in the analysis, dog (P < .0001), order (P < .0001), site (P < .0001), site order (P = .0217), time (P < .0001), day (P < .0001) and repetition (P < .0001) all significantly affected the algometer readings. When only the first reading for each site was included in the analysis, dog (P < .0001), site (P < .0001) and sex (P < .0001) all significantly affected algometer readings. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that learning occurred over repeated collection time points, with dogs anticipating the stimulus and reacting at lower thresholds.

Multicenter clinical evaluation of a multi-dose formulation of propofol in the dog.

BACKGROUND: Propofol is a widely used injectable anesthetic agent for induction and short-term maintenance in dogs. A multi-dose formulation of propofol (MDP) has been developed which includes 2% benzyl alcohol as a preservative. In order to document the use of the product under clinical conditions, MDP was tested in a prospective clinical trial conducted at six sites within the United States. One hundred thirty-eight healthy, client-owned dogs were assigned to one of six treatment groups based on premedicants (none, acepromazine/buprenorphine, midazolam/buprenorphine, medetomidine/buprenorphine) and maintenance agents (MDP, inhaled anesthetic). Anesthesia was induced by the intravenous administration of MDP given to effect. Physiological indices including heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure were monitored prior to and during anesthesia induction, maintenance and recovery. Adverse events, defined for severity by pre-established limits of these physiological values, as well as side effects, defined as any observation outside the normal range, were noted. RESULTS: The mean intubation dose was 7.6 ± 2.1 mg/kg for MDP alone and 4.7 ± 1.3, 4.0 ± 1.0 mg/kg and 3.2 ± 1.4 mg/kg when buprenorphine was used in combination with midazolam, acepromazine and medetomidine, respectively. Of the 32 adverse events, apnea (12 incidents), bradycardia (9 incidents) and hypotension (7 incidents) were most frequently recorded. Emesis, cyanosis and second degree heart block were each noted once and successfully resolved. The cause of a single death 2 days post-anesthesia was assessed as a surgical complication. CONCLUSIONS: MDP was found to be acceptable for use in healthy dogs for induction and short term maintenance of anesthesia when used alone and in combination with premedicants and inhaled anesthetics.

The effects of low-level laser therapy in a rat model of intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of low-level laser therapy applied to the serosal surface of the rat jejunum following ischemia and reperfusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 15 groups and anesthetized. Small intestinal ischemia was induced by clamping the superior mesenteric artery for 60 minutes. A laser diode (70 mW, 650 nm) was applied to the serosal surface of the jejunum at a dose of 0.5 J/cm(2) either immediately before or following initiation of reperfusion. Animals were maintained under anesthesia and sacrificed at 0, 1, and 6 hours following reperfusion. Intestinal, lung, and liver samples were evaluated histologically. RESULTS: Intestinal injury was significantly worse (P < 0.0001) in animals treated with laser and no ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) compared to sham. Intestinal injury was significantly worse in animals that underwent IRI and laser treatment at all time points compared to sham (P < 0.001). In animals that underwent IRI, those treated with laser had significantly worse intestinal injury compared to those that did not have laser treatment at 0 (P = 0.0104) and 1 (P = 0.0015) hour of reperfusion. After 6 hours of reperfusion there was no significant difference in injury between these two groups. Lung injury was significantly decreased following IRI in laser-treatment groups (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: At the dose and parameters used, low-level laser did not protect against intestinal IRI in the acute phase of injury. However, laser did provide protection against distant organ injury. Failure to observe a therapeutic response in the intestine may be due to inappropriate dosing parameters. Furthermore, the model was designed to detect the histologic response within the first 6 hours of injury, whereas the beneficial effects of laser, if they occur, may not be observed until the later phases of healing. The finding of secondary organ protection is important, as lung injury following IRI is a significant source of morbidity and mortality.

Effect of cold compression therapy on postoperative pain, swelling, range of motion, and lameness after tibial plateau leveling osteotomy in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of cold compression therapy (CCT) on postoperative pain, lameness, range of motion of the stifle joint, and swelling following tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) in dogs. DESIGN: Randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. ANIMALS: 34 client-owned dogs with unilateral deficiency of a cranial cruciate ligament undergoing TPLO. PROCEDURES: Dogs were assigned to 2 groups. Group 1 (n = 17 dogs) received CCT in the 24-hour period following TPLO. Group 2 (n = 17 dogs) received no CCT. Degree of lameness, range of motion, and circumference of the stifle joint were measured before surgery and 1,14, and 28 days after surgery. A modified composite Glasgow pain scale, visual analogue scale, and pain threshold score were used to evaluate signs of pain before surgery and 1,14, and 28 days after surgery. Logistic regression and linear regression analysis were used to compare the measured variables. RESULTS: No complications were observed, and all dogs tolerated CCT. Use of CCT resulted in lower values for the visual analogue scale and Glasgow pain scale and lower pain threshold scores; lower lameness scores; less swelling; and an increased range of motion 24 hours after surgery. At 14 days after surgery, there were no significant differences between groups. At 28 days after surgery, too few data sets were available for comparison. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: CCT decreased signs of pain, swelling, and lameness and increased stifle joint range of motion in dogs during the first 24 hours after TPLO.

Treatment of visceral pain in horses.

Identification and alleviation of visceral pain is a frequent concern for the equine owner and veterinarian. This article discusses sources, methods for identification and quantitation, and options for treatment of visceral pain in horses.

Pharmacologic Methods: An Update on Optimal Presedation and Euthanasia Solution Administration.

Pre-euthanasia sedation or anesthesia offers many benefits. It allows the owners to spend time with their pet before euthanasia, improves safety for the person performing euthanasia and others who are present, decreases stress for the patient, reduces or eliminates the need for physical restraint for intravenous injection. Under anesthesia, non-intravenous routes may be used for administration of euthanasia solutions. Some drugs that do not require injection; the oral transmucosal route is noninvasive and suitable for several drugs or drug combinations. The oral route also is feasible, but there are fewer data available on suitable drugs and doses.

Antinociceptive and side-effects of hydromorphone after subcutaneous administration in cats.

The subcutaneous (SC) route is often chosen for drug administration in cats because it is easier to perform than intravenous (IV) injection and is perceived as less painful than intramuscular (IM) injection. However, little is known of how the route of administration influences the pharmacodynamics of drugs. This study measured the changes in skin temperature and thermal threshold (TT) and recorded the side-effects after SC injection of 0.1mg/kg of hydromorphone in six cats. Time to peak TT was 105min. Skin temperature was elevated at 15min and between 45 and 360min. Five cats vomited and two exhibited marked dysphoria. Compared to previously published studies of IV and IM administration of hydromorphone, the SC route results in a slower onset of peak effect, a shorter duration of antinociception and is associated with more undesirable side-effects. As with IV and IM injections, SC administration of hydromorphone at 0.1mg/kg is associated with a significant elevation in skin temperature. Overall, the SC route appears to have the least utility.

Comparison of time to desaturation between preoxygenated and nonpreoxygenated dogs following sedation with acepromazine maleate and morphine and induction of anesthesia with propofol.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the time to desaturation in healthy dogs that breathed oxygen or room air for 3 minutes before induction of anesthesia. ANIMALS: 20 healthy dogs. PROCEDURES: Dogs were sedated with morphine and acepromazine maleate. Dogs received a 3-minute treatment of room air or oxygen (100 mL/kg/min) via face mask. Arterial blood samples were collected before and after treatment to determine PaCO(2), PaO(2), pH, and SaO(2); propofol (6 mg/kg, IV) was injected during a 7-second period, and the dogs were intubated. A lingual pulse oximeter probe was placed. Dogs remained disconnected from the breathing circuit until SpO(2) equaled 90% (desaturation point) and then connected and ventilated until the SpO(2) was >or= 97%. Arterial blood samples were collected and SpO(2) was recorded every 30 seconds for 4 minutes and then every minute until the desaturation point. Times to first breath and the desaturation point were recorded. Data were collected at 0, 5, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 seconds. RESULTS: Mean +/- SEM time to desaturation differed significantly between dogs treated with room air (69.6 +/- 10.6 seconds) and oxygen (297.8 +/- 42.0 seconds). Lowest mean PaO(2) and SaO(2) when dogs were breathing room air were 62 +/- 6.3 mm Hg and 82.3 +/- 4%, respectively, at 30 seconds. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Preoxygenation for 3 minutes increased the time to desaturation in healthy dogs sedated with acepromazine and morphine in which anesthesia was induced with propofol.

Determination of cardiac output in anesthetized neonatal foals by use of two pulse wave analysis methods.

OBJECTIVE: To compare cardiac output (CO) measured by lithium arterial pressure waveform analysis (PULSECO) and CO measured by transpulmonary pulse contour analysis (PICCO) in anesthetized foals, with CO measured by use of lithium dilution (LIDCO) considered the criterion-referenced standard. SAMPLE POPULATION: 6 neonatal (1- to 4-day-old) foals that weighed 38 to 45 kg. Procedures-Foals were anesthetized and instrumented to measure direct blood pressure, heart rate, arterial blood gases, and CO. The CO was measured by use of PULSECO, PICCO, and LIDCO techniques. Measurements were converted to specific CO (sCO) values for statistical analysis. Measurements were obtained during low, intermediate, and high CO states. RESULTS: sCO ranged from 75.5 to 310 mL/kg/min. Mean +/- SD PICCO bias varied significantly among CO states and was -51.9 +/- 23.1 mL/kg/min, 20.0 +/- 19.5 mL/kg/min, and 87.2 +/- 19.5 mL/kg/min at low, intermediate, and high CO states, respectively. Mean PULSECO bias (11.0 +/- 37.5 mL/kg/min) was significantly lower than that of PICCO and did not vary among CO states. Concordance correlation coefficient between LIDCO and PULSECO was significantly greater than that between LIDCO and PICCO. The proportion of observations with a relative bias < +/- 30% was significantly lower with the PULSECO method than with the PICCO method. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Values for the PULSECO method were more reproducible and agreed better with values for the LIDCO method than did values for the PICCO method and were able to more accurately monitor changes in CO in anesthetized newborn foals.

Effect of detomidine on visceral and somatic nociception and duodenal motility in conscious adult horses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of detomidine on visceral and somatic nociception, heart and respiratory rates, sedation, and duodenal motility and to correlate these effects with serum detomidine concentrations. STUDY DESIGN: Nonrandomized, experimental trial. ANIMALS: Five adult horses, each with a permanent gastric cannula weighing 534 +/- 46 kg. METHODS: Visceral nociception was evaluated by colorectal (CRD) and duodenal distension (DD). The duodenal balloon was used to assess motility. Somatic nociception was assessed via thermal threshold (TT). Nose-to-ground (NTG) height was used as a measure of sedation. Serum was collected for pharmacokinetic analysis. Detomidine (10 or 20 microg kg(-1)) was administered intravenously. Data were analyzed by means of a three-factor anova with fixed factors of treatment and time and random factor of horse. When a significant time x treatment interaction was detected, differences were compared with a simple t-test or Bonferroni t-test. Significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: Detomidine produced a significant, dose-dependent decrease in NTG height, heart rate, and skin temperature and a significant, nondose-dependent decrease in respiratory rate. Colorectal distension threshold was significantly increased with 10 microg kg(-1) for 15 minutes and for at least 165 minutes with 20 microg kg(-1). Duodenal distension threshold was significantly increased at 15 minutes for the 20 microg kg(-1) dose. A significant change in TT was not observed at either dose. A marked, immediate decrease in amplitude of duodenal contractions followed detomidine administration at both doses for 50 minutes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Detomidine caused a longer period of visceral anti-nociception as determined by CRD but a shorter period of anti-nociception as determined by DD than has been previously reported. The lack of somatic anti-nociception as determined by TT testing may be related to the marked decrease in skin temperature, likely caused by peripheral vasoconstriction and the low temperature cut-off of the testing device.

A review of feral cat control.

Animal overpopulation including feral cats is an important global problem. There are many stakeholders involved in the feral cat debate over 'what to do about the problem', including those who consider them a nuisance, the public at risk from zoonotic disease, people who are concerned about the welfare of feral cats, those concerned with wildlife impacts, and the cats themselves. How best to control this population is controversial and has ranged from culling, relocation, and more recently 'trap neuter return' (TNR) methods. Data support the success of TNR in reducing cat populations, but to have a large impact it will have to be adopted on a far greater scale than it is currently practised. Non-surgical contraception is a realistic future goal. Because the feral cat problem was created by humans, concerted educational efforts on responsible pet ownership and the intrinsic value of animals is an integral part of a solution.

Effect of acepromazine, butorphanol, or N-butylscopolammonium bromide on visceral and somatic nociception and duodenal motility in conscious horses.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate effects of butorphanol, acepromazine, and N-butylscopolammonium bromide (NBB) on visceral and somatic nociception and duodenal motility in conscious, healthy horses. ANIMALS: 6 adult horses. PROCEDURES: Visceral nociception was evaluated by use of colorectal distention (CRD) and duodenal distention (DD) threshold. Somatic nociception was evaluated via thermal threshold (TT). Nose-to-ground height, heart rate, and respiratory rate were also measured. Each horse received each treatment in randomized order; investigators were not aware of treatments. Butorphanol was administered IV as a bolus (18 microg/kg) followed by constant rate infusion at 13 microg/kg/h for 2 hours, whereas acepromazine (0.04 mg/kg), NBB (0.3 mg/kg), and saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (2 mL) were administered IV as a bolus followed by constant rate infusion with saline solution (10 mL/h) for 2 hours. Variables were measured before and for 3 hours after treatment. Data were analyzed by use of a 3-factor ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni t test for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Nose-to-ground height decreased after acepromazine. Respiratory rate decreased after acepromazine and increased after butorphanol. Heart rate increased briefly after NBB. Some horses had an increase in TT after butorphanol and acepromazine, but there was not a significant treatment effect over time. Drug effect on DD or motility was not evident. The CRD threshold increased significantly at 5, 65, 155, and 185 minutes after acepromazine and from 5 to 65 minutes after NBB. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Each drug caused predictable changes in sedation and vital signs, but consistent anti-nociceptive effects were not evident.

Managing pain in feline patients.

This article reviews the current knowledge of pain assessment in cats and the most effective methods for its alleviation. Excellent acute pain management is achievable in cats by using opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), alpha(2)-agonists, and local anesthetics. A multimodal approach using agents that work at different places in the pain pathway is encouraged because this can have added benefits. Management of chronic pain in cats can be challenging, but there is now an approved NSAID for long-term use. As we gain experience with less traditional analgesics, such as gabapentin, and critically evaluate complimentary therapies, our ability to provide comfort to this population of cats should improve.

AAFP Feline Anesthesia Guidelines.

AIM: The overarching purpose of the AAFP Anesthesia Guidelines (hereafter referred to as the 'Guidelines') is to make anesthesia and sedation safer for the feline patient. Scope and accessibility: It is noteworthy that these are the first exclusively feline anesthesia guidelines authored by an expert panel, making them particularly useful as an extensively referenced, practical resource for veterinary practice teams. Because much of the key content is presented in tabular or visual format, the Guidelines have a high level of accessibility and convenience that invites regular usage. While the recommendations in the Guidelines focus primarily on client-owned cats, the content is also applicable to community-sourced animals with an unknown medical history.