Genital Ulcers: Differential Diagnosis and Management.

Genital ulcers may be located on the vagina, penis, and anorectal or perineal areas and may be infectious or noninfectious. Herpes simplex virus is the most common cause of genital ulcers in the United States. A diagnosis of genital herpes simplex virus infection is made through physical examination and observation of genital lesions. The 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted disease guidelines provide strategies for the management of patients with genital ulcer disease. Specific testing includes a polymerase chain reaction test for herpes simplex virus; syphilis serology and darkfield microscopy or a direct fluorescent antibody test for Treponema pallidum; and/or culture for Haemophilus ducreyi in settings where chancroid is highly prevalent. Rarely, cases of Epstein-Barr virus may present with genital ulcers. Syphilis and chancroid cause genital ulcers and are mandatory reportable diseases to the local health department. In some cases, no pathogen is identified. It is important to consider noninfectious etiologies such as sexual trauma, psoriasis, Behçet syndrome, and fixed drug eruptions. Genital ulcers are symptomatic by definition, and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for syphilis infection for those at risk, early screening for syphilis infection in all pregnant women, and against routine serologic screening for genital herpes simplex virus infection in asymptomatic adolescents and adults, including those who are pregnant.

The Undergraduate to Graduate Medical Education Transition as a Systems Problem: A Root Cause Analysis.

The transition from undergraduate medical education (UME) to graduate medical education (GME) constitutes a complex system with important implications for learner progression and patient safety. The transition is currently dysfunctional, requiring students and residency programs to spend significant time, money, and energy on the process. Applications and interviews continue to increase despite stable match rates. Although many in the medical community acknowledge the problems with the UME-GME transition and learners have called for prompt action to address these concerns, the underlying causes are complex and have defied easy fixes. This article describes the work of the Coalition for Physician Accountability's Undergraduate Medical Education to Graduate Medical Education Review Committee (UGRC) to apply a quality improvement approach and systems thinking to explore the underlying causes of dysfunction in the UME-GME transition. The UGRC performed a root cause analysis using the 5 whys and an Ishikawa (or fishbone) diagram to deeply explore problems in the UME-GME transition. The root causes of problems identified include culture, costs and limited resources, bias, systems, lack of standards, and lack of alignment. Using the principles of systems thinking (components, connections, and purpose), the UGRC considered interactions among the root causes and developed recommendations to improve the UME-GME transition. Several of the UGRC's recommendations stemming from this work are explained. Sustained monitoring will be necessary to ensure interventions move the process forward to better serve applicants, programs, and the public good.

Diagnosis and management of genital ulcers.

Herpes simplex virus infection and syphilis are the most common causes of genital ulcers in the United States. Other infectious causes include chancroid, lymphogranuloma venereum, granuloma inguinale (donovanosis), secondary bacterial infections, and fungi. Noninfectious etiologies, including sexual trauma, psoriasis, Behçet syndrome, and fixed drug eruptions, can also lead to genital ulcers. Although initial treatment of genital ulcers is generally based on clinical presentation, the following tests should be considered in all patients: serologic tests for syphilis and darkfield microscopy or direct fluorescent antibody testing for Treponema pallidum, culture or polymerase chain reaction test for herpes simplex virus, and culture for Haemophilus ducreyi in settings with a high prevalence of chancroid. No pathogen is identified in up to 25 percent of patients with genital ulcers. The first episode of herpes simplex virus infection is usually treated with seven to 10 days of oral acyclovir (five days for recurrent episodes). Famciclovir and valacyclovir are alternative therapies. One dose of intramuscular penicillin G benzathine is recommended to treat genital ulcers caused by primary syphilis. Treatment options for chancroid include a single dose of intramuscular ceftriaxone or oral azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, or erythromycin. Lymphogranuloma venereum and donovanosis are treated with 21 days of oral doxycycline. Treatment of noninfectious causes of genital ulcers varies by etiology, and ranges from topical wound care for ulcers caused by sexual trauma to consideration of subcutaneous pegylated interferon alfa-2a for ulcers caused by Behçet syndrome.

Diagnosis and management of gonococcal infections.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae causes urogenital, anorectal, conjunctival, and pharyngeal infections. Urogenital tract infections are most common. Men with gonorrhea may present with penile discharge and dysuria, whereas women may present with mucopurulent discharge or pelvic pain; however, women often are asymptomatic. Neonatal infections include conjunctivitis and scalp abscesses. If left untreated, gonorrhea may cause pelvic inflammatory disease in women, or it may disseminate, causing synovial and skin manifestations. Urogenital N. gonorrhoeae infection can be diagnosed using culture or nucleic acid amplification testing. Urine nucleic acid amplification tests have a sensitivity and specificity comparable to those of cervical and urethral samples. Fluoroquinolones are no longer recommended for the treatment of gonorrhea because of antimicrobial resistance. A single intramuscular injection of ceftriaxone, 250 mg, is first-line treatment for uncomplicated urogenital, anorectal, or pharyngeal gonococcal infections. This dosage is more effective for common pharyngeal infections than the previously recommended dose of 125 mg. Ceftriaxone should routinely be accompanied by azithromycin or doxycycline to address the likelihood of coinfection with Chlamydia trachomatis. Azithromycin may be used as an alternative treatment option for patients with previous allergic reactions to penicillin, but because of the likelihood of antimicrobial resistance, its use should be limited. Gonococcal infection should prompt physicians to test for other sexually transmitted infections, including human immunodeficiency virus. Because of high reinfection rates, patients should be retested in three to six months. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for gonorrhea in all sexually active women at increased risk of infection. It also recommends intensive behavioral counseling for persons with or at increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections. Condom use is an effective strategy to reduce the risk of infection.

Diabetic nephropathy--the family physician's role.

Nearly one-half of persons with chronic kidney disease have diabetes mellitus. Diabetes accounted for 44 percent of new cases of kidney failure in 2008. Diabetic nephropathy, also called diabetic kidney disease, is associated with significant macrovascular risk, and is the leading cause of kidney failure in the United States. Diabetic nephropathy usually manifests after 10 years' duration of type 1 diabetes, but may be present at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Screening for microalbuminuria should be initiated five years after diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. Screening for microalbuminuria with a spot urine albumin/creatinine ratio identifies the early stages of nephropathy. Positive results on two of three tests (30 to 300 mg of albumin per g of creatinine) in a six-month period meet the diagnostic criteria for diabetic nephropathy. Because diabetic nephropathy may also manifest as a decreased glomerular filtration rate or an increased serum creatinine level, these tests should be included in annual monitoring. Preventive measures include using an angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker in normotensive persons. Optimizing glycemic control and using an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker to control blood pressure slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy, but implementing intensive glycemic and blood pressure control is associated with more adverse outcomes. Low-protein diets may also decrease adverse renal outcomes and mortality in persons with diabetic nephropathy.

UGRC 2021 recommendations on GME transition: pros and cons, opportunities and limitations.

The Coalition for Physician Accountability's Undergraduate Medical Education-Graduate Medical Education (UME-GME) Review Committee (UGRC): Recommendations for Comprehensive Improvement of the UME-GME Transition final report includes a total of 34 recommendations and outlines opportunities to transform the current processes of learner transition from a US-based MD- or DO-granting medical school or international medical education pathway into residency training in the United States. This review provides a reflection on the recommendations from the authors, all members of the UGRC, describing the pros and cons and the opportunities and limitations, in the hopes that they might inspire readers to dig deeper into the report and contribute to meaningful improvements to the current transition. The UGRC Recommendations highlight the many opportunities for improvement in the UME-to-GME transition. They are built on the connection to the system of education and formation of physicians to a more just healthcare system, with attention to diversity, equity, and inclusion to improve health disparities and to the quality of care that patients receive. However, there are justifiable concerns about changes that are not fully understood or that could potentially lead to unintentional consequences. This analysis, reached through author consensus, considers the pros and cons in the potential application of the UGRC Recommendations to improve the UME-to-GME transition. Further debate and discussion are warranted, without undue delay, all with the intention to continue to improve the education of tomorrow's physicians and the care for the patients who we have the privilege to serve.

Joint Guidelines for Protected Nonclinical Time for Faculty in Family Medicine Residency Programs.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Family medicine faculty face increasing expectations for clinical productivity. These expectations impinge on academic and education time and make it difficult to pursue research or scholarly activities. A task force convened by the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine created national guidelines to protect nonclinical time for family medicine faculty. METHODS: The task force reviewed existing guidelines for protected time, as well as data on current and past distribution of time for faculty in academic medicine, including a specific look at family medicine. Based on the evidence and expert opinion from task force members and leaders of family medicine organizations, the task force developed eight consensus recommendations. RESULTS: The guidelines include recommendations for allocation of protected time for program directors, associate program directors, and core faculty. These represent best practices to ensure programs have appropriate time to devote to the nonclinical duties of training and educating residents, while also promoting innovation in education, faculty well-being, and faculty retention. DISCUSSION: Faculty require nonclinical time for resident development, curriculum creation and maintenance, program assessment, and scholarship. Without these functions, programs can't meet accreditation requirements or fulfill their responsibility to develop strong family physicians. Residency programs, sponsoring institutions, universities, health care systems, and accrediting bodies should use these recommendations to develop budgets that provide appropriate time allocation to enhance faculty wellness, reduce turnover, and meet organizational missions and objectives around education and providing care for communities.

Ovarian cancer: an overview.

Although ovarian cancer may occur at any age, it is more common in patients older than 50 years. Patients often present with nonspecific pelvic or abdominal symptoms. Initial diagnostic tests include transvaginal ultrasonography and serum cancer antigen 125 measurement; however, these tests are not specific for ovarian cancer. Conventional treatment includes surgical debulking followed by chemotherapy. Prognosis is typically determined by the cancer stage and grade, although future treatment may depend on tumor genetic composition. Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common type of ovarian cancer, and because 70 percent of cases are diagnosed at stage III or IV, it is associated with a poor prognosis. Preventive visits provide an opportunity to identify and educate women at increased risk of ovarian cancer, but routine screening is not recommended. Women with a family history of ovarian cancer or a known associated genetic syndrome should be offered genetic counseling or a discussion of available preventive interventions, respectively.

Collaborating to Achieve the Optimal Family Medicine Workforce.

When the Family Medicine for America's Health (FMAHealth) Workforce Education and Development Tactic Team (WEDTT) began its work in December 2014, one of its charges from the FMAHealth Board was to increase family physician production to achieve the diverse primary care workforce the United States needs. The WEDTT created a multilevel interfunctional team to work on this priority initiative that included a focus on student, resident, and early-career physician involvement and leadership development. One major outcome was the adoption of a shared aim, known as 25 x 2030. Through a collaboration of the WEDTT and the eight leading family medicine sponsoring organizations, the 25 x 2030 aim is to increase the percentage of US allopathic and osteopathic medical students choosing family medicine from 12% to 25% by the year 2030. The WEDTT developed a package of change ideas based on its theory of what will drive the achievement of 25 x 2030, which led to specific projects completed by the WEDTT and key collaborators. The WEDTT offered recommendations for the future based on its 3-year effort, including policy efforts to improve the social accountability of US medical schools, strategy centered around younger generations' desires rather than past experiences, active involvement by students and residents, engagement of early-career physicians as role models, focus on simultaneously building and diversifying the family medicine workforce, and security of the scope future family physicians want to practice. The 25 x 2030 initiative, carried forward by the family medicine organizations, will use collective impact to adopt a truly collaborative approach toward achieving this much needed goal for family medicine.

Genital Cancers in Women: Uterine Cancer.

There are two main types of uterine cancer. Endometrial carcinoma, the most commonly diagnosed genital cancer in women, accounts for most cases (more than 95%) and sarcoma comprises the remainder. Endometrial cancer primarily occurs in postmenopausal women. Risk factors include exposure to high levels of endogenous estrogen (eg, obesity, nulliparity, late menopause) or exogenous estrogen (eg, hormone replacement therapy, tamoxifen) and pelvic radiation. Genetics are involved in a small percentage of cases, notably among women in families with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). More than 80% of patients with endometrial cancers present with abnormal uterine bleeding. Endometrial biopsy and transvaginal ultrasound are the first-line tests to evaluate bleeding. If the endometrial lining is thickened on ultrasound, endometrial biopsy is indicated. If symptoms persist after negative biopsy results, or if biopsy results are inadequate, hysteroscopy is performed for tissue sampling. Most patients with endometrial cancer are diagnosed early, when cancer is confined to the uterus. Hysterectomy is the treatment of choice in such cases. Treatment of advanced disease involves radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy. Perimenopausal women should be informed that abnormal bleeding could be a sign of cancer and should be evaluated. However, no routine screening is recommended except for women with HNPCC.

Genital Cancers in Women: Cervical Cancer.

In 2015 in the United States, it is estimated there will be approximately 12,900 new patients with cervical cancer and 4,100 will die of the disease. If diagnosed at a localized stage, the 5-year survival rate exceeds 90%. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the main risk factor for cervical cancer. Current recommendations for cervical cancer screening include Papanicolaou (Pap) testing every 3 years for women ages 21 to 29 years. For women ages 30 to 65 years, an alternative is screening with Pap and HPV testing every 5 years. If screening results are abnormal, further evaluation can be guided by an algorithm. For a diagnosis of carcinoma in situ or grade 3 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), treatment typically involves ablation or excision. Women with CIN 1 or CIN 2 that persists typically are treated with the same methods. For women diagnosed with early-stage invasive cancer, standard treatment is radical hysterectomy. More advanced cancers also are treated with surgery, but chemotherapy and/or radiation also may be used depending on cancer stage. Because most cervical cancer is caused by HPV, it is potentially preventable with HPV vaccination, which is recommended for females and males, ideally beginning at age 11 or 12 years.

Genital Cancers in Women: Ovarian Cancer.

More than 20,000 US women are diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year. The average lifetime risk is 1.3%, but risk increases with BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations (40% and 18% risk, respectively, by age 70 years) or hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome (12% lifetime risk). Other risk factors include smoking, possibly past clomiphene use, and more years of ovulation. Symptoms are nonspecific. Abdominal pain is most common; others include pelvic pain, bloating, and early satiety. When ovarian cancer is suspected, evaluation should begin with transvaginal ultrasonography with Doppler studies. Cancer antigen 125 testing can be obtained, but levels are not elevated in all patients. Other biomarkers (eg, OVA1) and scoring systems can be used to help determine if cancer is present. When diagnosed early (stage I), the 5-year survival rate is 90% for epithelial ovarian cancer. However, most patients with epithelial ovarian cancer are diagnosed in stage III or later, with a 5-year survival rate of 17% to 39%. Treatment involves total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, with or without chemotherapy. Fertility-preserving options can be considered in some early-stage cancers, followed by more definitive surgical procedures. There is no evidence that routine screening is beneficial and it is associated with significant harms from unnecessary procedures. Women with genetic syndromes that increase risk should be considered for prophylactic bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.

Genital Cancers in Women: Vulvar Cancer.

Vulvar cancer is uncommon, accounting for 0.3% of all new US cancer diagnoses. The majority of cases are squamous cell carcinoma. Malignant melanoma is the second most common type. Other cases are related to chronic inflammatory skin disorders such as lichen sclerosus. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) is a precursor to squamous cell vulvar cancer. It may be the usual type associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, or the differentiated type often associated with chronic skin disorders. Risk factors for VIN are HPV infection, cigarette smoking, chronic skin disorders, and immunosuppression. Symptoms of vulvar cancer include pruritus, bleeding, skin color change, skin lesions, and dysuria. VIN and vulvar cancer are diagnosed by skin biopsy. Treatment of VIN includes wide local excision, via surgical removal or with laser or ultrasonic surgical aspiration procedures. Medical therapy with imiquimod also may be used. Prognosis is good with early detection; the 5-year survival rate for stage I cancer is greater than 85%. Advanced disease has a poor prognosis, with a 5-year survival rate in stage IV disease as low as 5%. Although screening for vulvar cancer is not recommended, clinicians should evaluate and biopsy any suspicious vulvar lesions. Current efforts at prevention are aimed at HPV vaccination.

Practice improvement, part II: collaborative practice and team-based care.

The Institute of Medicine recommends interprofessional teams to address patients' complex needs. Team care should be structured in a way that uses the highest training levels of its members. Team communication is enhanced through regular meetings (eg, team huddles), and office efficiency is improved through identifying and solving underlying system-level issues (ie, second-order problem solving). Inclusive leadership principles are used to strengthen team practices and meet chronic care model goals. Setting clear goals with measurable outcomes, creating clinical and administrative systems, establishing a clear division of labor among team members who have occupational diversity, and providing ongoing training all facilitate team building. Increasing opportunities for team members to work together, such as with group visits, and providing interprofessional education are ways to encourage adoption of interprofessional practice. Reimbursement for team care includes per member per month payments for such services as care management, pay-for-performance benchmark payments, and payment for non-face-to-face services.

Practice improvement, part II: health literacy.

Approximately half of American adults have limited health literacy, and the majority have inadequate skills for preventing disease and managing their own health. Low health literacy results in poor health outcomes, including mortality, and high health care costs. Screening for health literacy using a validated instrument can facilitate targeted support services. In the alternative, practices can use universal approaches through practice assessments, improving spoken and written communications, enhancing patient empowerment through self-management education and training, and creating supportive systems. This effort can be driven by clinician interventions (eg, use of the teach-back educational method), tools for patient use (eg, visual and decision aids), and/or system-wide interventions. Materials for tailoring a practice approach to enhancing health literacy are available through the Agency for Healthcare Research & Quality.

Practice improvement, part II: update on patient communication technologies.

Patient portals (ie, secure web-based services for patient health record access) and secure messaging to health care professionals are gaining popularity slowly. Advantages of web portals include timely communication and instruction, access to appointments and other services, and high patient satisfaction. Limitations include inappropriate use, security considerations, organizational costs, and exclusion of patients who are uncomfortable with or unable to use computers. Attention to the organization's strategic plan and office policies, patient and staff expectations, workflow and communication integration, training, marketing, and enrollment can facilitate optimal use of this technology. Other communication technologies that can enhance patient care include automated voice or text reminders and brief electronic communications. Social media provide another method of patient outreach, but privacy and access are concerns. Incorporating telehealthcare (health care provided via telephone or Internet), providing health coaching, and using interactive health communication applications can improve patient knowledge and clinical outcomes and provide social support.

Practice improvement, part II: trends in employment versus private practice.

A growing percentage of physicians are selecting employment over solo practice, and fewer family physicians have hospital admission privileges. Results from surveys of recent medical school graduates indicate a high value placed on free time. Factors to consider when choosing a practice opportunity include desire for independence, decision-making authority, work-life balance, administrative responsibilities, financial risk, and access to resources. Compensation models are evolving from the simple fee-for-service model to include metrics that reward panel size, patient access, coordination of care, chronic disease management, achievement of patient-centered medical home status, and supervision of midlevel clinicians. When a practice is sold, tangible personal property and assets in excess of liabilities, patient accounts receivable, office building, and goodwill (ie, expected earnings) determine its value. The sale of a practice includes a broad legal review, addressing billing and coding deficiencies, noncompliant contractual arrangements, and potential litigations as well as ensuring that all employment agreements, leases, service agreements, and contracts are current, have been executed appropriately, and meet regulatory requirements.