Genomic evidence reveals three W-autosome fusions in Heliconius butterflies.

Sex chromosomes are evolutionarily labile in many animals and sometimes fuse with autosomes, creating so-called neo-sex chromosomes. Fusions between sex chromosomes and autosomes have been proposed to reduce sexual conflict and to promote adaptation and reproductive isolation among species. Recently, advances in genomics have fuelled the discovery of such fusions across the tree of life. Here, we discovered multiple fusions leading to neo-sex chromosomes in the sapho subclade of the classical adaptive radiation of Heliconius butterflies. Heliconius butterflies generally have 21 chromosomes with very high synteny. However, the five Heliconius species in the sapho subclade show large variation in chromosome number ranging from 21 to 60. We find that the W chromosome is fused with chromosome 4 in all of them. Two sister species pairs show subsequent fusions between the W and chromosomes 9 or 14, respectively. These fusions between autosomes and sex chromosomes make Heliconius butterflies an ideal system for studying the role of neo-sex chromosomes in adaptive radiations and the degeneration of sex chromosomes over time. Our findings emphasize the capability of short-read resequencing to detect genomic signatures of fusion events between sex chromosomes and autosomes even when sex chromosomes are not explicitly assembled.

The Andes as a semi-permeable geographical barrier: Genetic connectivity between structured populations in a widespread spider.

Geographical barriers like mountain ranges impede genetic exchange among populations, promoting diversification. The effectiveness of these barriers in limiting gene flow varies between lineages due to each species' dispersal modes and capacities. Our understanding of how the Andes orogeny contributes to species diversification comes from well-studied vertebrates and a few arthropods and plants, neglecting organisms unable to fly or walk long distances. Some arachnids, such as Gasteracantha cancriformis, have been hypothesized to disperse long distances via ballooning (i.e. using their silk to interact with the wind). Yet, we do not know how the environment and geography shape its genetic diversity. Therefore, we tested whether the Andes contributed to the diversification of G. cancriformis acting as an absolute or semi-permeable barrier to genetic connectivity between populations of this spider at opposite sides of the mountain range. We sampled thousands of loci across the distribution of the species and implemented population genetics, phylogenetic, and landscape genetic analyses. We identified two genetically distinct groups structured by the Central Andes, and a third less structured group in the Northern Andes that shares ancestry with the previous two. This structure is largely explained by the altitude along the Andes, which decreases in some regions, possibly facilitating cross-Andean dispersal and gene flow. Our findings support that altitude in the Andes plays a major role in structuring populations in South America, but the strength of this barrier can be overcome by organisms with long-distance dispersal modes together with altitudinal depressions.

Las barreras geográficas como las cordilleras montañosas impiden el intercambio genético entre poblaciones, promoviendo la diversificación. La efectividad de estas barreras para limitar el flujo genético varía entre linajes debido a los modos y capacidades de dispersión de cada especie. Nuestra comprensión de cómo la orogenia de los Andes contribuye a la diversificación de especies proviene de vertebrados y algunos artrópodos y plantas bien estudiados, descuidando a los organismos incapaces de volar o caminar grandes distancias. Se ha hipotetizado que algunas arañas, como Gasteracantha cancriformis, se dispersan a grandes distancias mediante la técnica de "ballooning" (es decir, utilizando su seda para interactuar con el viento). Sin embargo, no sabemos cómo el entorno y la geografía han dado forma a su diversidad genética. Por lo tanto, probamos si los Andes contribuyeron a la diversificación de G. cancriformis actuando como una barrera absoluta o permeable para la conectividad genética entre poblaciones de esta araña en lados opuestos de la cordillera. Muestreamos miles de loci a través de la distribución de la especie e implementamos análisis de genética de poblaciones, filogenéticos y de genética del paisaje. Identificamos dos grupos genéticamente distintos estructurados por los Andes Centrales, y un tercer grupo menos estructurado en los Andes del Norte que comparte ascendencia con los dos anteriores. Esta estructura se explica en gran medida por la altitud a lo largo de los Andes, que disminuye en algunas regiones, posiblemente facilitando la dispersión y el flujo genético a través de los Andes. Nuestros hallazgos apoyan que la altitud en los Andes juega un papel importante en la estructuración de las poblaciones en América del Sur, pero la fuerza de esta barrera puede ser superada por organismos con modos de dispersión a larga distancia junto con depresiones altitudinales.

Usefulness of the Nasal Allergen Provocation Test in the Diagnosis of Shellfish Allergy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Shellfish allergy is a major cause of food allergy and anaphylaxis worldwide. Several allergenic proteins have been described in the last few years, but the only diagnostic tool that still enables discrimination between allergic and nonallergic sensitized persons is the oral food challenge (OFC). The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of the nasal allergen provocation test (NAPT) as a diagnostic tool in shellfish allergy. METHODS: Forty-five patients with confirmed sensitization to shrimp by a positive skin prick test (SPT) result with a commercial shrimp extract were recruited and classified as sensitized-allergic or sensitized-nonallergic based on current tolerance to shrimp intake, the result of an OFC with a freeze-dried cooked shrimp mixture extract, or a recent history of anaphylaxis induced by shrimp ingestion. These patients and 10 controls not sensitized to shrimp underwent NAPT with a freeze-dried cooked shrimp mixture extract. The response was evaluated using acoustic rhinometry and a visual analog scale. RESULTS: Significant differences (P=.001) were found between the sensitized-allergic group (18/20 positive NAPT, 90%) and both the sensitized-nonallergic group (2/18 positive NAPT, 11.1%) and controls (0/10 positive NAPT). NAPT enables differentiation between allergic and nonallergic persons with a sensitivity of 90%, specificity of 89%, positive predictive value of 90%, and negative predictive value of 89%. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that NAPT makes it possible to differentiate between sensitized symptomatic patients and sensitized tolerant patients and could be a valuable diagnostic tool when assessing shrimp allergy.

Atopic dermatitis: pathomechanisms and lessons learned from novel systemic therapeutic options.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, heterogenous, inflammatory skin disorder associated with a high skin-related health burden, typically starting in childhood and often persisting into adulthood. AD is characterized by a wide range of clinical phenotypes, reflecting multiple underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and interactions between genetics, immune system dysregulation and environmental factors. In this review, we describe the diverse cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in AD, including the critical role of T-cell-driven inflammation, primarily via T helper (Th) 2- and Th17-derived cytokines, many of which are mediated by the Janus kinase (JAK) signaling pathway. These local inflammatory processes interact with sensory neuronal pathways, contributing to the clinical manifestations of AD, including itch, pain and sleep disturbance. The recent elucidation of the molecular pathways involved in AD has allowed treatment strategies to evolve from broad-acting systemic immunosuppressive therapies to more targeted agents, including JAK inhibitors and cytokine-specific biologic agents. Evidence from the clinical development of these targeted therapies has reinforced and expanded our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying AD and holds promise for individualized treatment strategies tailored to specific AD subtypes.

Light environment influences mating behaviours during the early stages of divergence in tropical butterflies.

Speciation is facilitated when traits under divergent selection also act as mating cues. Fluctuations in sensory conditions can alter signal perception independently of adaptation to the broader sensory environment, but how this fine-scale variation may constrain or promote behavioural isolation has received little attention. The warning patterns of Heliconius butterflies are under selection for aposematism and act as mating cues. Using computer vision, we extracted behavioural data from 1481 h of video footage, for 387 individuals. We show that the putative hybrid species H. heurippa and its close relative H. timareta linaresi differ in their response to divergent warning patterns, but that these differences are strengthened with increased local illuminance. Trials with live individuals reveal low-level assortative mating that is sufficiently explained by differences in visual attraction. Finally, results from hybrid butterflies are consistent with linkage between a major warning pattern gene and the corresponding behaviour, though the differences in behaviour we observe are unlikely to cause rapid reproductive isolation as predicted under a model of hybrid trait speciation. Overall, our results reveal that the contribution of ecological mating cues to reproductive isolation may depend on the immediate sensory conditions during which they are displayed to conspecifics.

Impact of baricitinib in combination with topical steroids on atopic dermatitis symptoms, quality of life and functioning in adult patients with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis from the BREEZE-AD7 Phase 3 randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Baricitinib is an oral, selective, reversible Janus kinase 1/2 inhibitor approved in the European Union and Japan and under investigation in the United States for treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the impact of baricitinib plus background topical corticosteroids (TCS) on health-related quality of life (HRQoL), how AD symptoms impact work productivity and life functioning, and treatment benefit using patient-reported outcome (PRO) assessments in patients with moderate-to-severe AD previously experiencing inadequate response to TCS. METHODS: Adult patients with AD in BREEZE-AD7, a Phase 3, multicentre, double-blind trial, were randomised 1 : 1 : 1 to daily oral placebo (control) or baricitinib 4- or 2-mg plus TCS. PROs reported Week 1 through Week 16: Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI), Work Productivity and Activity Impairment-AD (WPAI-AD); Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Itch and Sleep measures, and Patient Benefit Index (PBI). Data were analysed using logistic regression (categorical) and mixed model repeated measures (continuous). PBI scores were analysed using analysis of variance. RESULTS: A total of 329 patients were randomised. Treatment with baricitinib 4-mg (N = 111) or 2 mg (N = 109) plus TCS led to rapid, statistically significant improvements [vs. TCS plus placebo (N = 109)] in DLQI ≥4-point improvement starting at Week 2 (4-mg plus TCS, P ≤ 0.001; 2-mg plus TCS P ≤ 0.05), change from baseline in WPAI-AD presenteeism at Week 1 (4-mg plus TCS, P ≤ 0.01; 2-mg plus TCS P ≤ 0.05) and PROMIS itch interference at Week 2 (4-mg plus TCS P ≤ 0.01). Improvements were sustained through Week 16 for baricitinib 4-mg. Statistically significant improvements were observed at Week 16 for PBI global score (4-mg plus TCS, P ≤ 0.001; 2-mg plus TCS P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Baricitinib plus TCS vs. placebo plus TCS showed significant improvements in treatment benefit at Week 16 and rapid significant improvements in HRQoL and impact of AD symptoms on work productivity and functioning through 16 weeks.

Cost-benefit analysis of funding smoking cessation before surgery.

BACKGROUND: Smoking at the time of surgery is associated with postoperative complications. Quitting smoking before surgery is linked to fewer complications during the hospital stay. This work analysed whether a smoking cessation intervention before surgery is economically worthwhile when funded by the National Health System (NHS) in Spain. METHODS: The economic analysis considered costs and benefits of the intervention to the NHS for the year 2016. The population who would benefit comprised adult smokers who were ready to quit and for whom surgery requiring admission to hospital was planned. The intervention, a combination of medical counselling and use of a smoking cessation drug which should occur 12 weeks before surgery, considered one attempt only to quit smoking. Benefits were costs avoided by averting postoperative complications if cessation was successful. The analysis compared the net economic outcome (benefit minus cost of intervention) and the return on investment, for intervention funded by the NHS versus the current situation without funding. RESULTS: Smoking cessation increased by 21·7 per cent with funding; the rate was 32·5 per cent when funded versus 10·7 per cent without funding, producing 9611 extra quitters. The cost per averted smoker was €1753 with a benefit of €503, achieving a net economic benefit of €4·8 million per year. Given the annual cost of the intervention (€17·4 million, of which €5·6 million (32·5 per cent) represents drugs), the return on investment was 28·7 per cent annually, equivalent to €1·29 per €1 of investment. CONCLUSION: From the perspective of the Spanish NHS, the benefit of funding smoking cessation before surgery, in terms of healthcare cost savings, appears to greatly outweigh the costs.

ANTECEDENTES: Ser fumador activo hasta el momento de la cirugía se asocia con complicaciones postoperatorias. Se ha descrito una disminución de las complicaciones durante la hospitalización al abandonar el hábito de fumar antes de la cirugía. Este trabajo analizó si una intervención preoperatoria para dejar de fumar es económicamente beneficiosa cuando se financia por el Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS) en España. MÉTODOS: En el análisis económico se consideraron tantos los costes como los beneficios de la intervención para el SNS, en euros, correspondientes al año 2016. La población que se beneficiaría eran fumadores adultos dispuestos a dejar de fumar, en los que se programase una intervención quirúrgica con hospitalización. La intervención, una combinación de asesoramiento médico y tratamiento farmacológico para dejar de fumar, se llevó a cabo a las 12 semanas antes de la cirugía, considerando únicamente un intento para dejar de fumar. Los beneficios fueron los costes evitados por una reducción en la tasa de complicaciones postoperatorias en los casos en los que se hubiese conseguido la eliminación del hábito. El análisis comparó el resultado económico neto (beneficio menos coste de la intervención) y el retorno de la inversión (return on investment, ROI), cuando la intervención era financiada por el SNS en comparación con la situación actual sin financiamiento público. RESULTADOS: La tasa de abandono del hábito tabáquico aumentó en un 21,8%; 32,5% cuando se financiaba frente al 10,7% sin financiación, consiguiendo un extra de 9.611 personas que dejaron de fumar. El coste por fumador rescatado fue de €1753 con un beneficio de €503, por lo que el beneficio económico neto conseguido fue de €4,8 millones por año. Dado que el coste anual de la intervención (€17,4 millones, de los cuales €5,6 millones corresponden a fármacos (32%)), el ROI anual fue del 28,7% con un beneficio de €1,29 por cada €1 de inversión. CONCLUSIÓN: Desde la perspectiva del SNS español, los beneficios de financiar el abandono del hábito de fumar en el preoperatorio de los pacientes, en términos de ahorro de costes parecen ser muy superiores a los costes de la intervención.

Shellfish Allergy: Unmet Needs in Diagnosis and Treatment.

Seafood is a major cause of food allergy and anaphylaxis worldwide. Shellfish is included among the "big eight" food groups, which are responsible for more than 90% of all cases of food allergy. Approximately 2.5% of the world's population has experienced an adverse reaction to seafood. Seafood allergy is one of the most frequent and lethal allergies that exist. The several allergenic proteins involved in allergic reactions that have been described in recent years include tropomyosin, arginine kinase, myosin light chain, and sarcoplasmic calcium-binding protein. Despite all the data reported in the last few years, shellfish allergy is still diagnosed and treated as it was 50 years ago. The only effective treatment to prevent allergic reactions to shellfish is avoidance. This review aims to update recently published data on shellfish allergy and to highlight those areas that have yet to be resolved.

Metacognitive scaffolding boosts cognitive and neural benefits following executive attention training in children.

Interventions including social scaffolding and metacognitive strategies have been used in educational settings to promote cognition. In addition, increasing evidence shows that computerized process-based training enhances cognitive skills. However, no prior studies have examined the effect of combining these two training strategies. The goal of this study was to test the combined effect of metacognitive scaffolding and computer-based training of executive attention in a sample of typically developing preschoolers at the cognitive and brain levels. Compared to children in the regular training protocol and an untrained active control group, children in the metacognitive group showed larger gains on intelligence and significant increases on an electrophysiological index associated with conflict processing. Moreover, changes in the conflict-related brain activity predicted gains in intelligence in the metacognitive scaffolding group. These results suggest that metacognitive scaffolding boosts the influence of process-based training on cognitive efficiency and brain plasticity related to executive attention.

Didodecyldimethylammonium Bromide Role in Anchoring Gold Nanoparticles onto Liposome Surface for Triggering the Drug Release.

Liposomes with their capacity to anchor gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) onto their surface are used in the treatment of several pathologies such as cancer. The objective of this work was the optimization of the vesicle composition by using cationic agents in order to reinforce the anchoring process of AuNPs, and for the study of the influence of local temperature and vesicle size on drug release. A Plackett-Burman design was conducted to determine the optimal composition for the anchoring of AuNPs. A comprehensive study of the influence of lipid bilayer composition on the surface charge, size, and polydispersity index (PdI) of liposomes was carried out. Afterwards, in vitro release studies by dialysis were performed and several release parameters were evaluated as a function of temperature. Cholesterol was fixed as the rigid agent and Didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) was selected as the cationic lipid into the liposome bilayer. Photomicrographs revealed that DDAB facilitated the anchoring of AuNPs onto the liposomal surface. The anchoring of AuNPs also enhanced the amount and rate of calcein released, especially in extruded samples, at several incubating temperatures. In addition, it was observed that both the anchoring of AuNPs and the calcein release were improved by increasing the surface of the vesicles. The contributions of liposome composition (DDAB inclusion, incubation temperature, anchoring of AuNPs) and size and surface availability of the vesicles on calcein release could be used to design improved lipid nanostructures for the controlled release of anticancer drugs.

Frontal theta activation associated with error detection in toddlers: influence of familial socioeconomic status.

Error detection is one of the functions of the executive attention network, a brain system involved in executive control that includes the anterior cingulate cortex and other prefrontal regions. Despite the key role of this function in a wide range of life outcomes, very limited research has examined the early development of the network and whether its functional efficacy is related to environmental factors. Electrophysiological studies with adults have shown oscillatory activity in theta (4-7 Hz) range arising from medial frontal cortex that follows the detection of self-committed or observed errors. In the current study, we designed a novel experimental procedure that involved a familiarization phase with simple three-pieces puzzles followed by an experimental phase in which toddlers observed the puzzles being formed either correctly or incorrectly. Observation of incorrect configurations produced increased potentials in midline channels and greater power theta activity for both toddlers (n = 56) and adults (n = 14). In addition, socioeconomic status of the family in general, and parental education in particular, contributed to individual differences in the amplitude of the error-related signal and associated theta power in toddlers, indicating that children raised in lower SES families show poorer activation of the executive attention network. These data demonstrate the influence of environmental factors at the earliest stages of development of the executive attention network. Importantly, the results show that error-detection EEG signals can be used as neural markers of the initial development of executive attention, which can be of great help for the early detection of risk for developmental disorders involving deficits in this function.

Calibrated prevalence of infertility in 30- to 49-year-old women according to different approaches: a cross-sectional population-based study.

STUDY QUESTION: How does the estimated prevalence of infertility among 30- to 49-year-old women vary when using different approaches to its measurement? SUMMARY ANSWER: The prevalence of women with difficulties in conceiving differed widely according to the measurement approach adopted. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Establishing the true magnitude of infertility as a public health problem is challenging, given that it is not categorized as a disability or chronic condition and may be largely unreported. The time required to conceive is an increasingly frequent concern among couples of reproductive age. Population-based studies do not consider multiple approaches to infertility measurement in the same sample. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: A face-to-face cross-sectional population-based survey of 443 women aged between 30 and 49 years residing in Huelva, southern Spain, was carried out. The sample size estimation was based on an assumed prevalence of infertility of 19%, a sampling error of ±4.84 percentage points, a design effect of 1.8 and a 95% confidence level. The information was collected in 2011. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Self-reported information was gathered on socio-demographic data, pregnancy history, time required to become pregnant and perception of difficulties in becoming pregnant. Eight approaches to the estimation of infertility prevalence were considered: diagnosed infertility, subjective infertility, 1-year infertility, primary infertility, secondary infertility and subfertility based on the time taken to conceive (6, 12 or 24 months). Calibration estimators (indirect estimation techniques) were used to extrapolate the infertility prevalences to the whole of Spain. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: The response rate was 61.05%. Among 30- to 49-year-old Spanish women, 1.26% had a clinical diagnosis of infertility, 17.58% did not achieve pregnancy in 1 year (1-year infertility), 8.22% perceived difficulties in procreation (subjective infertility), 6.12% had not succeeded in having biological children (primary infertility) and 11.33% had not been able to have another biological child (secondary infertility). Finally, pregnancy was not achieved within 6, 12 and 24 months of starting to attempt conception in 19.98, 11.21 and 4.36% of women, respectively. These approaches to estimate the prevalence of infertility show similar socio-demographic patterns except for educational level. Calibration adjustments allowed extrapolation of these prevalences to Spain and a reduction of from 3.7 to 90.4% in their variances. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: The response rate was moderate but acceptable in comparison to similar studies. We only asked whether the women had practiced intercourse without contraceptive methods for >1 year. Hence, we could only calculate the time for which a couple were trying to become pregnant when the woman became pregnant, and we do not know whether it was longer than 1 year for the women failing to conceive. Future research should avoid this study weakness by gathering quantitative data on the months during which vaginal sexual intercourse was practiced, with no time limit. The only prevalence with a high coefficient of variation was that for diagnosed infertility, and our estimation for this prevalence should be interpreted with caution. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Despite major differences according to the approach adopted, the prevalences of infertility estimated in our study are comparable with those obtained in other similar studies. A set of categories to measure infertility including subjective infertility, 1-year infertility and subfertility have been proposed here, which may be useful for cross-disciplinary comparisons of infertility in clinical and population-based studies. These measures may also assist health managers to tailor fertility resources and services to the real needs of the population and provide a more rapid and effective response to couples. Finally, the calibration adjustments (indirect estimation techniques) applied to the infertility prevalences help to maximize their generalization and improve accuracy. This technique may be considered as a model for application in other epidemiological studies.

Evaluation of particle size and feed form on performance, carcass characteristics, nutrient digestibility, and gastrointestinal tract development of broilers at 39 d of age.

The objective of this study was to evaluate combined effects of corn particle size and feed form on performance, carcass characteristics, nutrient digestibility, and gastrointestinal tract development of broilers from 1 to 39 d of age. A total of 1,800 days old, male Cobb 500 broilers were randomly assigned to 9 dietary treatments with 8 replicate pens (25 birds/pen). The experiment consisted of a factorial arrangement of 3 corn particle sizes (750, 1,150, and 1,550 µm) and 3 feed forms (mash, 3- and 4-mm pellets) provided from 1 to 39 d. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) was added as an indigestible marker (0.5%) during the finisher phase (27-39 d) to determine nutrient digestibility. Feed intake (FI), body weight (BW), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined at 17, 27, and 39 d of age, with FCR adjusted for mortality. On d 40, 10 birds/pen were randomly selected and processed for meat yield determination. Data were analyzed as a 3×3 factorial (particle size x feed form) arrangement of treatments. Broilers fed 3- and 4-mm pellets had increased (P < 0.05) BW, FI, and lower FCR than broilers fed mash diets at 39 d of age. At 39 d of age, broilers fed diets with 750 µm corn particle size had heavier (P < 0.05) BW and increased FI than broilers fed diets with corn particle sizes of 1,150 and 1,550 µm. At 39 d of age FCR was unaffected by corn particle size. Heavier (P < 0.05) carcass and breast weights were observed for broilers fed 3-mm pellets. Broilers fed diets with corn particle size of 750 µm had heavier (P < 0.05) carcass and breast weight than broilers fed diets with 1,550 µm. Digestibility of nutrients was higher (P < 0.05) in pelleted diets, particularly when corn particle size was increased from 750 to 1,550 µm. Breast myopathies such as wooden breast (WB) and spaghetti meat (SM), were greater (P < 0.05) in broilers fed 3-mm pellets compared to mash diets. In conclusion, broilers fed 3- and 4-mm pelleted diets had greater nutrient digestibility and improved broiler performance compared to broilers fed mash diets.

The Interplay between Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Temperament Predicts Inhibitory Control at Two Years of Age.

This paper investigates the interplay between environmental factors (socioeconomic status (SES) and parenting) and temperament in the development of inhibitory control (IC) at 2 years of age. We administered to toddlers (n = 59) a delay of gratification task which measures IC in the context of self-regulation. Parents reported their toddlers' temperament, parenting strategies, and SES. We hypothesized that poorer IC would be associated with more reactive temperament, less effortful control, lower SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting practices. Finally, we explored the interaction between temperament, parenting and SES. We found that both coercive parenting and low-SES were negatively correlated to IC at the age of 2 years. Temperamental reactivity was unrelated to IC, whereas temperamental effortful control (EC) was positively associated with IC. Results revealed a moderation effect of EC on the influence of coercive parenting and SES in toddlers' IC. Toddlers from lower SES backgrounds and with lower EC were more affected by inconsistent/coercive parenting practices and showed the poorest IC. In contrast, toddlers exhibiting high and average levels of EC seemed to be protected from the detrimental effect of low-SES and inconsistent/coercive parenting on IC. These results suggest that strengthening toddlers' EC and improving parents' parenting skills might be especially relevant for the development of IC in the context of self-regulation, particularly by preventing self-regulatory problems in children from socioeconomically deprived environments. Future studies with larger samples, focusing on populations from severe socioeconomically deprived environments, or intervention studies will be needed in order to confirm and expand our findings.

Attention: The grounds of self-regulated cognition.

Everyone knows what paying attention is, yet not everybody knows what this means in cognitive and brain function terms. The attentive state can be defined as a state of optimal activation that allows selecting the sources of information and courses of action in order to optimize our interaction with the environment in accordance with either the saliency of the stimulation or internal goals and intentions. In this article we argue that paying attention consists in tuning the mind with the environment in a conscious and controlled mode in order to enable the strategic and flexible adaptation of responses in accordance with internal motivations and goals. We discuss the anatomy and neural mechanisms involved in attention functions and present a brief overview of the neurocognitive development of this seminal cognitive function on the grounds of self-regulated behavior. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Attention (BEAB) Brain Function and Dysfunction (BEAC) Cognitive Development (BAAD).

Predicting behavioral and brain markers of inhibitory control at preschool age from early measures of executive attention.

Background: Inhibitory control (IC) is the ability to prevent prepotent responses when inappropriate. Longitudinal research on IC development has mainly focused on early childhood and adolescence, while research on IC development in the first years of life is still scarce. To address this gap in the literature, we explored the association between executive attention (EA) and elementary forms of IC in infancy and toddlerhood, with individual differences in IC later at 5 years of age. Method: We conducted a five-wave longitudinal study in which children's EA and IC (n = 96) were tested at the age of 9 and 16 months and 2, 3, and 5 years. Children performed various age-appropriate EA and IC tasks in each wave, measuring inhibition of attention, endogenous control of attention, inhibition of the response, and conflict inhibition. At 5 years of age, IC was measured with a Go/No-go task while recording event-related potentials. After correlation analyses, structural equation model analyses were performed to predict IC at 5 years of age from EA and early IC measures. Results: The results revealed that EA at 9 months predicted IC measures at 2 years of age. Likewise, measures of IC at 2 years predicted performance on the Go/No-go task at behavioral and neural levels. No direct association was found between EA at 9 months and IC at 5 years of age. We further observed that some EA and IC measures were not associated across time. Conclusion: As we expected, EA skills in infancy and toddlerhood were related to better performance of children on IC tasks, toghether with a more mature inhibition-related brain functioning. Altogether, the results indicate that IC in early childhood could be predicted from EA and IC at 9 months and 2 years of age and suggest that the early emergence of IC relies on the development of particular EA and basic IC skills. However, some discontinuities in the longitudinal development of IC are observed in the first 5 years of life. These findings provide further support for the hierarchical model of IC development.