Next Generation Sequencing and Electromyography Reveal the Involvement of the P2RX6 Gene in Myopathy.

Ion channelopathies result from impaired ion channel protein function, due to mutations affecting ion transport across cell membranes. Over 40 diseases, including neuropathy, pain, migraine, epilepsy, and ataxia, are associated with ion channelopathies, impacting electrically excitable tissues and significantly affecting skeletal muscle. Gene mutations affecting transmembrane ionic flow are strongly linked to skeletal muscle disorders, particularly myopathies, disrupting muscle excitability and contraction. Electromyography (EMG) analysis performed on a patient who complained of weakness and fatigue revealed the presence of primary muscular damage, suggesting an early-stage myopathy. Whole exome sequencing (WES) did not detect potentially causative variants in known myopathy-associated genes but revealed a novel homozygous deletion of the P2RX6 gene likely disrupting protein function. The P2RX6 gene, predominantly expressed in skeletal muscle, is an ATP-gated ion channel receptor belonging to the purinergic receptors (P2RX) family. In addition, STRING pathways suggested a correlation with more proteins having a plausible role in myopathy. No previous studies have reported the implication of this gene in myopathy. Further studies are needed on patients with a defective ion channel pathway, and the use of in vitro functional assays in suppressing P2RX6 gene expression will be required to validate its functional role.

The Chromatin Organization Close to SNP rs12913832, Involved in Eye Color Variation, Is Evolutionary Conserved in Vertebrates.

The most significant genetic influence on eye color pigmentation is attributed to the intronic SNP rs12913832 in the HERC2 gene, which interacts with the promoter region of the contiguous OCA2 gene. This interaction, through the formation of a chromatin loop, modulates the transcriptional activity of OCA2, directly affecting eye color pigmentation. Recent advancements in technology have elucidated the precise spatial organization of the genome within the cell nucleus, with chromatin architecture playing a pivotal role in regulating various genome functions. In this study, we investigated the organization of the chromatin close to the HERC2/OCA2 locus in human lymphocyte nuclei using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) data. The 3 Mb of genomic DNA that belonged to the chromosomal region 15q12-q13.1 revealed the presence of three contiguous chromatin loops, which exhibited a different level of compaction depending on the presence of the A or G allele in the SNP rs12913832. Moreover, the analysis of the genomic organization of the genes has demonstrated that this chromosomal region is evolutionarily highly conserved, as evidenced by the analysis of syntenic regions in species from other Vertebrate classes. Thus, the role of rs12913832 variant is relevant not only in determining the transcriptional activation of the OCA2 gene but also in the chromatin compaction of a larger region, underscoring the critical role of chromatin organization in the proper regulation of the involved genes. It is crucial to consider the broader implications of this finding, especially regarding the potential regulatory role of similar polymorphisms located within intronic regions, which do not influence the same gene by modulating the splicing process, but they regulate the expression of adjacent genes. Therefore, caution should be exercised when utilizing whole-exome sequencing for diagnostic purposes, as intron sequences may provide valuable gene regulation information on the region where they reside. Thus, future research efforts should also be directed towards gaining a deeper understanding of the precise mechanisms underlying the role and mode of action of intronic SNPs in chromatin loop organization and transcriptional regulation.

Alterations in Genome Organization in Lymphoma Cell Nuclei due to the Presence of the t(14;18) Translocation.

Chromosomal rearrangements have been shown to alter genome organization, consequently having an impact on gene expression. Studies on certain types of leukemia have shown that gene expression can be exacerbated by the altered nuclear positioning of fusion genes arising from chromosomal translocations. However, studies on lymphoma have been, so far, very limited. The scope of this study was to explore genome organization in lymphoma cells carrying the t(14;18)(q32;q21) rearrangement known to results in over-expression of the BCL2 gene. In order to achieve this aim, we used fluorescence in situ hybridization to carefully map the positioning of whole chromosome territories and individual genes involved in translocation in the lymphoma-derived cell line Pfeiffer. Our data show that, although there is no obvious alteration in the positioning of the whole chromosome territories, the translocated genes may take the nuclear positioning of either of the wild-type genes. Furthermore, the BCL2 gene was looping out in a proportion of nuclei with the t(14;18) translocation but not in control nuclei without the translocation, indicating that chromosome looping may be an essential mechanism for BCL2 expression in lymphoma cells.

Moderate Physical Activity Increases the Expression of ADNP in Rat Brain.

Activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP) is a neuroprotective protein essential for embryonic development, proper brain development, and neuronal plasticity. Its mutation causes the autism-like ADNP syndrome (also called the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome), characterized by neural developmental disorders and motor dysfunctions. Similar to the ADNP syndrome, the ADNP haploinsufficient mouse shows low synapse density, leading to motor and cognitive ability delays. Moderate physical activity (PA) has several neuroprotective and cognitive benefits, promoting neuronal survival, differentiation, neurogenesis, and plasticity. Until now, no study has investigated the effect of moderate exercise on ADNP expression and distribution in the rat brain. The aim of the current investigation was to study the effects of moderate exercise on the ADNP expression and neuronal activation measured by the microtubule protein ß-Tubulin III. In pursuit of this objective, twenty-four rats were selected and evenly distributed into two categories: sedentary control rats and rats exposed to moderate physical activity on a treadmill over a span of 12 weeks. Our results showed that moderate PA increases the expression of ADNP and ß-Tubulin III in the dentate gyrus (DG) hippocampal region and cerebellum. Moreover, we found a co-localization of ADNP and ß-Tubulin III in both DG and cerebellum, suggesting a direct association of ADNP with adult neuronal activation induced by moderate PA.

Whole Exome Sequencing as a First-Line Molecular Genetic Test in Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies.

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEE) are severe neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by recurrent, usually early-onset, epileptic seizures accompanied by developmental impairment often related to both underlying genetic etiology and abnormal epileptiform activity. Today, next-generation sequencing technologies (NGS) allow us to sequence large portions of DNA quickly and with low costs. The aim of this study is to evaluate the use of whole-exome sequencing (WES) as a first-line molecular genetic test in a sample of subjects with DEEs characterized by early-onset drug-resistant epilepsies, associated with global developmental delay and/or intellectual disability (ID). We performed 82 WESs, identifying 35 pathogenic variants with a detection rate of 43%. The identified variants were highlighted on 29 different genes including, 3 new candidate genes (KCNC2, STXBP6, DHRS9) for DEEs never identified before. In total, 23 out of 35 (66%) de novo variants were identified. The most frequently identified type of inheritance was autosomal dominant de novo (60%) followed by autosomal recessive in homozygosity (17%) and heterozygosity (11%), autosomal dominant inherited from parental mosaicism (6%) and X-linked dominant de novo (6%). The most frequent mutations identified were missense (75%) followed by frameshift deletions (16%), frameshift duplications (5%), and splicing mutations (3%). Considering the results obtained in the present study we support the use of WES as a form of first-line molecular genetic testing in DEEs.

STXBP6 Gene Mutation: A New Form of SNAREopathy Leads to Developmental Epileptic Encephalopathy.

Syntaxin-binding protein 6 (STXBP6), also known as amysin, is an essential component of the SNAP receptor (SNARE) complex and plays a crucial role in neuronal vesicle trafficking. Mutations in genes encoding SNARE proteins are often associated with a broad spectrum of neurological conditions defined as "SNAREopathies", including epilepsy, intellectual disability, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders. The present whole exome sequencing (WES) study describes, for the first time, the occurrence of developmental epileptic encephalopathy and autism spectrum disorders as a result of a de novo deletion within the STXBP6 gene. The truncated protein in the STXBP6 gene leading to a premature stop codon could negatively modulate the synaptic vesicles' exocytosis. Our research aimed to elucidate a plausible, robust correlation between STXBP6 gene deletion and the manifestation of developmental epileptic encephalopathy.

Cell Cycle Reactivation, at the Start of Neurodegeneration, Induced by Forskolin and Aniline in Differentiated Neuroblastoma Cells.

A characteristic hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the intracellular accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, a phenomenon that appears to have associations with oxidative stress, double-stranded DNA breakage, and the de-condensation of heterochromatin. Re-entry into the cell division cycle appears to be involved in the onset of this neurodegenerative process. Indeed, the cell cycle cannot proceed regularly in the differentiated neurons leading to cell death. Here, we induced cell cycle reactivation in neuronal-like cells, obtained by neuroblastoma cells treated with retinoic acid, by exposure to forskolin or aniline. These compounds determine tau hyperphosphorylation or oxidative stress, respectively, resulting in the appearance of features resembling the start of neuronal degeneration typical of AD, such as tau hyperphosphorylation and re-entry into the cell cycle. Indeed, we detected an increased transcriptional level of cyclins and the appearance of a high number of mitotic cells. We also observed a delay in the initiation of the cell cycle when forskolin was co-administered with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). This delay was not observed when PACAP was co-administered with aniline. Our data demonstrate the relevance of tau hyperphosphorylation in initiating an ectopic cell cycle in differentiated neuronal cells, a condition that can lead to neurodegeneration. Moreover, we highlight the utility of neuroblastoma cell lines as an in vitro cellular model to test the possible neuroprotective effects of natural molecules.

Regulation of UV-B-Induced Inflammatory Mediators by Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP)-Derived Peptide (NAP) in Corneal Epithelium.

The corneal epithelium, representing the outermost layer of the cornea, acts as a barrier to protect the eye against external insults such as ultraviolet B (UV-B) radiations. The inflammatory response induced by these adverse events can alter the corneal structure, leading to visual impairment. In a previous study, we demonstrated the positive effects of NAP, the active fragment of activity-dependent protein (ADNP), against oxidative stress induced by UV-B radiations. Here, we investigated its role to counteract the inflammatory event triggered by this insult contributing to the disruption of the corneal epithelial barrier. The results indicated that NAP treatment prevents UV-B-induced inflammatory processes by affecting IL-1ß cytokine expression and NF-κB activation, as well as maintaining corneal epithelial barrier integrity. These findings may be useful for the future development of an NAP-based therapy for corneal disease.

Specific Learning Disorders: Variation Analysis of 15 Candidate Genes in 9 Multiplex Families.

Background and Objectives: Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) is a complex neurobiological disorder characterized by a persistent difficult in reading (dyslexia), written expression (dysgraphia), and mathematics (dyscalculia). The hereditary and genetic component is one of the underlying causes of SLD, but the relationship between genes and the environment should be considered. Several genetic studies were performed in different populations to identify causative genes. Materials and Methods: Here, we show the analysis of 9 multiplex families with at least 2 individuals diagnosed with SLD per family, with a total of 37 persons, 21 of whom are young subjects with SLD, by means of Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) to identify possible causative mutations in a panel of 15 candidate genes: CCPG1, CYP19A1, DCDC2, DGKI, DIP2A, DYM, GCFC2, KIAA0319, MC5R, MRPL19, NEDD4L, PCNT, PRMT2, ROBO1, and S100B. Results: We detected, in eight families out nine, SNP variants in the DGKI, DIP2A, KIAA0319, and PCNT genes, even if in silico analysis did not show any causative effect on this behavioral condition. In all cases, the mutation was transmitted by one of the two parents, thus excluding the case of de novo mutation. Moreover, the parent carrying the allelic variant transmitted to the children, in six out of seven families, reports language difficulties. Conclusions: Although the present results cannot be considered conclusive due to the limited sample size, the identification of genetic variants in the above genes can provide input for further research on the same, as well as on other genes/mutations, to better understand the genetic basis of this disorder, and from this perspective, to better understand also the neuropsychological and social aspects connected to this disorder, which affects an increasing number of young people.

Allelic Variations in the Human Genes TMPRSS2 and CCR5, and the Resistance to Viral Infection by SARS-CoV-2.

During the first wave of COVID-19 infection in Italy, the number of cases and the mortality rates were among the highest compared to the rest of Europe and the world. Several studies demonstrated a severe clinical course of COVID-19 associated with old age, comorbidities, and male gender. However, there are cases of virus infection resistance in subjects living in close contact with infected subjects. Thus, to explain the predisposition to virus infection and to COVID-19 disease progression, we must consider, in addition to the genetic variability of the virus and other environmental or comorbidity conditions, the allelic variants of specific human genes, directly or indirectly related to the life cycle of the virus. Here, we analyzed three human genetic polymorphisms belonging to the TMPRSS2 and CCR5 genes in a sample population from Sicily (Italy) to investigate possible correlations with the resistance to viral infection and/or to COVID-19 disease progression as recently described in other human populations. Our results did not show any correlations of the rs35074065, rs12329760, and rs333 polymorphisms with SARS-CoV-2 infection or with COVID-19 disease severity. Further studies on other human genetic polymorphisms should be performed to identify the major human determinants of SARS-CoV-2 viral resistance.

PHF21A Related Disorder: Description of a New Case.

PHF21A (PHD finger protein 21A) gene, located in the short arm of chromosome 11, encodes for BHC80, a component of the Lysine Specific Demethylase 1, Corepressor of REST (LSD1-CoREST) complex. BHC80 is mainly expressed in the human fetal brain and skeletal muscle and acts as a modulator of several neuronal genes during embryogenesis. Data from literature relates PHF21A variants with Potocki-Shaffer Syndrome (PSS), a contiguous gene deletion disorder caused by the haploinsufficiency of PHF21A, ALX4, and EXT2 genes. Clinical cardinal features of PSS syndrome are multiple exostoses (due to the EXT2 involvement), biparietal foramina (due to the ALX4 involvement), intellectual disability, and craniofacial anomalies (due to the PHF21A involvement). To date, to the best of our knowledge, a detailed description of PHF21A-related disorder clinical phenotype is not described in the literature; in fact, only 14 subjects with microdeletion frameshift or nonsense variants concerning only PHF21A gene have been reported. All reported cases did not present ALX4 or EXT2 variants, and their clinical features did not fit with PSS diagnosis. Herein, by using Exome sequencing, and Sanger sequencing of the region of interest, we describe a case of a child with a paternally inherited (mosaicism of 5%) truncating variant of the PHF21A gene (c.649_650del; p.Gln217ValfsTer6), and discuss the new evidence. In conclusion, these patients showed varied clinical expressions, mainly including the presence of intellectual disability, epilepsy, hypotonia, and dysmorphic features. Our study contributes to describing the genotype-phenotype spectrum of patients with PHF21A-related disorder; however, the limited data in the literature have been unable to provide a precise diagnostic protocol for patients with PHF21A-related disorder.

From FISH to Hi-C: The Chromatin Architecture of the Chromosomal Region 7q36.3, Frequently Rearranged in Leukemic Cells, Is Evolutionary Conserved.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and Hi-C methods are largely used to investigate the three-dimensional organization of the genome in the cell nucleus and are applied here to study the organization of genes (LMBR1, NOM1, MNX1, UBE3C, PTPRN2) localized in the human 7q36.3 band. This region contains the MNX1 gene, which is normally not expressed in human lymphocytes beyond embryonic development. However, this homeobox gene is frequently activated in leukemic cells and its expression is associated with an altered gene positioning in the leukemia cell nuclei. In this study, we used FISH on 3D-preserved nuclei to investigate the nuclear positioning of MNX1 in the leukemia-derived cell line K562. Of the five copies of the MNX1 gene present in K562, four alleles were positioned in the nuclear periphery and only one in the nuclear interior. Using the Juicebox's Hi-C dataset, we identified five chromatin loops in the 7q36.3 band, with different extensions related to the size and orientation of the genes located here, and independent from their expression levels. We identified similar loops in 11 human and three mouse cell lines, showing that these loops are highly conserved in different human cell lines and during evolution. Moreover, the chromatin loop organization is well conserved also during neuronal cell differentiation, showing consistency in genomic organization of this region in development. In this report, we show that FISH and Hi-C are two different approaches that complement one another and together give complete information on the nuclear organization of specific chromosomal regions in different conditions, including cellular differentiation and genetic diseases.

The Interplay between Fe3O4 Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles, Sodium Butyrate, and Folic Acid for Intracellular Transport.

Combined treatments which use nanoparticles and drugs could be a synergistic strategy for the treatment of a variety of cancers to overcome drug resistance, low efficacy, and high-dose-induced systemic toxicity. In this study, the effects on human colon adenocarcinoma cells of surface modified Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in combination with sodium butyrate (NaBu), added as a free formulation, were examined demonstrating that the co-delivery produced a cytotoxic effect on malignant cells. Two different MNP coatings were investigated: a simple polyethylene glycol (PEG) layer and a mixed folic acid (FA) and PEG layer. Our results demonstrated that MNPs with FA (FA-PEG@MNPs) have a better cellular uptake than the ones without FA (PEG@MNPs), probably due to the presence of folate that acts as an activator of folate receptors (FRs) expression. However, in the presence of NaBu, the difference between the two types of MNPs was reduced. These similar behaviors for both MNPs likely occurred because of the differentiation induced by butyrate that increases the uptake of ferromagnetic nanoparticles. Moreover, we observed a strong decrease of cell viability in a NaBu dose-dependent manner. Taking into account these results, the cooperation of multifunctional MNPs with NaBu, taking into consideration the particular cancer-cell properties, can be a valuable tool for future cancer treatment.

PACAP Modulates the Autophagy Process in an In Vitro Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of complex etiology leading to motor neuron degeneration. Many gene alterations cause this pathology, including mutation in Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1), which leads to its gain of function. Mutant SOD1 proteins are prone to aberrant misfolding and create aggregates that impair autophagy. The hypoxic stress is strictly linked to the disease progression since it induces uncontrolled autophagy activation and the consequent high rates of cell death. Previously, we showed that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts neurotrophic activity in cultured mSOD1 motor neurons exposed to serum deprivation. To date, no studies have examined whether the protective effect of PACAP on mSOD1 cells exposed to hypoxic insult is mediated through the regulation of the autophagy process. In the present study, we used the neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 (NSC-34) cell line, stably expressing human wild type or mutant SOD1 G93A, to represent a well characterized in vitro model of a familial form of ALS. These cells were exposed to 100-µM desferrioxamine mesylate salt for 24h, to mimic the hypoxic stress affecting motor neurons during the disease progression. Our results showed that PACAP treatment significantly reduced cell death and hypoxia-induced mSOD1 accumulation by modulating the autophagy process in G93A motor neurons, as revealed by the decreased LC3II and the increased p62 levels, two autophagy indicators. These results were also confirmed by evaluating the vacuole formation detected through light chain 3 (LC3) immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the PACAP effects on autophagy seem to be mediated through the activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Overall, our data demonstrated that PACAP exerts an ameliorative effect on the mSOD1 motor neuron viability by modulating a hypoxia-induced autophagy process through activation of MAPK/ERK signaling cascade.

Molecular mechanisms involved in the protective effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide in an in vitro model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of upper and lower motor neurons. Based on transcriptional profiles of motor cortex samples, in a previous work, we were able to classify two subgroups of sporadic ALS (SALS) patients, named SALS1 and SALS2. A further meta-analysis study has revealed sixteen drug targets commonly deregulated in SALS2 and superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) G93A mice. The identified candidate drug targets included pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and matrix metallopeptidase-2 (MMP-2). By using a motor neuron-like hybrid cell line (NSC-34) expressing human SOD1 G93A as an in vitro model of ALS, here we investigated the functional correlation among these three genes. Our results have shown that PACAP increases cell viability following serum deprivation. This effect is induced through EGFR transactivation mediated by protein kinase A stimulation. Furthermore, EGFR phosphorylation activates mitogen-activated protein kinases/extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 survival signaling pathway and increases MMP-2 expression, significantly reduced by serum starvation. These results suggest that a deeper characterization of mechanisms involved in PACAP/EGFR/MMP-2 axis activation in G93A SOD1 mutated neurons may allow identifying new targets for ALS therapy.

NAP modulates hyperglycemic-inflammatory event of diabetic retina by counteracting outer blood retinal barrier damage.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common microvascular complication of diabetes. Prolonged hyperglycemia stimulates inflammatory pathway characterized by the release of some cytokines leading to the impairment of blood retinal barrier (BRB). NAP exerts a protective effect in various eye diseases, including DR. So far, the role of NAP in the modulation of inflammatory event during early phase of this pathology has not been investigated yet. In the current study, we have studied the retinal protective effect of NAP, injected into the eye, in diabetic rats. NAP treatment exerts a dual effect downregulating interleukin (IL)-1ß and its related receptors and upregulating IL-1Ra expression. We have also tested the role of this peptide in human retinal epithelial cells (ARPE19) cultured on a semipermeable support and exposed to hyperglycemic-inflammatory insult, representing a in vitro model of diabetic macular edema, a clinical manifestation of DR. The results have shown that NAP prevents outer BRB impairment by upregulating the tight junctions. In conclusion, deepened characterization of NAP action mechanism on hyperglycemic-inflammatory damage may be useful to develop a new strategy to prevent retinal damage during DR.

PACAP through EGFR transactivation preserves human corneal endothelial integrity.

The corneal endothelium is composed of a single hexagonal-shaped cells layer adherent to the Descemet's membrane. The primary function of these cells is maintaining of tissue clarity by regulating its hydration. Trauma, aging or other pathologies cause their loss, counterbalanced by enlargement of survived cells unable to guarantee an efficient fluid pumping to and from the stroma. Regenerative medicine using human corneal endothelial cells (HCECs) isolated from peripheral corneal-scleral tissue of a donor could be an attractive solution, overcoming transplantation problems. In a previous study, we have demonstrated that HCECs treatment with pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) following growth factors deprivation prevents their degeneration. However, the molecular mechanism mediating this effect has not been clarified, yet. Here, we have shown for the first time the expression of PACAP and its receptor (PAC1R) in human corneal endothelium and demonstrated that this peptide, selectively binding to PAC1R, induces epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation and the MAPK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway activation. In conclusion, our data have suggested that PACAP could represent an important trophic factor in maintaining human corneal endothelial integrity through EGFR transactivation. Therefore, PACAP, as well as epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor, could co-operate to guarantee tissue physiological functioning by supporting corneal endothelial barrier integrity.

Beneficial effects of curtailing immune susceptibility in an Alzheimer's disease model.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there are no effective therapeutic options for Alzheimer's disease, the most common, multifactorial form of dementia, characterized by anomalous amyloid accumulation in the brain. Growing evidence points to neuroinflammation as a major promoter of AD. We have previously shown that the proinflammatory cytokine TNFSF10 fuels AD neuroinflammation, and that its immunoneutralization results in improved cognition in the 3xTg-AD mouse. METHODS: Here, we hypothesize that inflammatory hallmarks of AD might parallel with central and peripheral immune response dysfunction. To verify such hypothesis, we used a triple transgenic mouse model of AD. 3xTg-AD mice were treated for 12 months with an anti-TNFSF10 antibody, and thereafter immune/inflammatory markers including COX2, iNOS, IL-1ß and TNF-α, CD3, GITR, and FoxP3 (markers of regulatory T cells) were measured in the spleen as well as in the hippocampus. RESULTS: Spleens displayed accumulation of amyloid-ß1-42 (Aß1-42), as well as high expression of Treg cell markers FoxP3 and GITR, in parallel with the increased levels of inflammatory markers COX2, iNOS, IL-1ß and TNF-α, and blunted IL-10 expression. Moreover, CD3 expression was increased in the hippocampus, consistently with FoxP3 and GITR. After chronic treatment of 3xTg-AD mice with an anti-TNFSF10 antibody, splenic FoxP3, GITR, and the above-mentioned inflammatory markers expression was restored to basal levels, while expression of IL-10 was increased. A similar picture was observed in the hippocampus. Such improvement of peripheral and CNS inflammatory/immune response was associated with decreased microglial activity in terms of TNFα production, as well as decreased expression of both amyloid and phosphorylated tau protein in the hippocampus of treated 3xTg-AD mice. Interestingly, we also reported an increased expression of both CD3 and FoxP3, in sections from human AD brain. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that neuroinflammation in the brain of 3xTg-AD mice triggered by TNFSF10 might result in a more general overshooting of the immune response. Treatment with an anti-TNFSF10 antibody blunted inflammatory processes both in the spleen and hippocampus. These data confirm the detrimental role of TNFSF10 in neurodegeneration, and corroborate the hypothesis of the anti-TNFSF10 strategy as a potential treatment to improve outcomes in AD.

NAP counteracts hyperglycemia/hypoxia induced retinal pigment epithelial barrier breakdown through modulation of HIFs and VEGF expression.

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a common complication leading to a central vision loss in patients with diabetes. In this eye pathology, the hyperglycaemic/hypoxic microenvironment of pigmented epithelium is responsible for outer blood retinal barrier integrity changes. More recently, we have shown that a small peptide derived from the activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP), known as NAP, counteracts damages occurring during progression of diabetic retinopathy by modulating HIFs/VEGF pathway. Here, we have investigated for the first time the role of this peptide on outer blood retinal barrier (BRB) integrity exposed to hyperglycaemic/hypoxic insult mimicking a model in vitro of DME. To characterize NAP role on disease's pathogenesis, we have analyzed its effect on HIFs/VEGF system in human retinal pigmented epithelial cells, ARPE-19, grown in high glucose and low oxygen tension. The results have shown that NAP prevents outer BRB breakdown by reducing HIF1α/HIF2α, VEGF/VEGFRs, and increasing HIF3α expression, moreover it is able to reduce the percentage of apoptotic cells by modulating the expression of two death related genes, BAX and Bcl2. Further investigations are needed to determine the possible use of NAP in DME treatment.

Differential expression of PARK2 splice isoforms in an in vitro model of dopaminergic-like neurons exposed to toxic insults mimicking Parkinson's disease.

Mutations in PARK2 (or parkin) are responsible for 50% of cases of autosomal-recessive juvenile-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). To date, 21 alternative splice variants of the human gene have been cloned. Yet most studies have focused on the full-length protein, whereas the spectrum of the parkin isoforms expressed in PD has never been investigated. In this study, the role of parkin proteins in PD neurodegeneration was explored for the first time by analyzing their expression profile in an in vitro model of PD. To do so, undifferentiated and all-trans-retinoic-acid (RA)-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells (which thereby acquire a PD-like phenotype) were exposed to PD-mimicking neurotoxins: 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+ ) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) are widely used in PD models, whereas carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP) and carbobenzoxy-Leu-Leu-leucinal (MG132) interfere, respectively, with mitochondrial mitophagy and proteasomal degradation. Following treatment with each neurotoxin H1, the first parkin isoform to be cloned, was down-regulated compared to the respective controls both in undifferentiated and RA-differentiated cells. In contrast, the expression pattern of the minor splice isoforms varied as a function of the compound used: it was largely unchanged in both cell cultures (eg, H21-H6, H12, XP isoform) or it showed virtually opposite alterations in undifferentiated and RA-differentiated cells (eg, H20 and H3 isoform). This complex picture suggests that up- or down-regulation may be a direct effect of toxin exposure, and that the different isoforms may exert different actions in neurodegeneration via modulation of different molecular pathways.