MITRAC links mitochondrial protein translocation to respiratory-chain assembly and translational regulation.

Mitochondrial respiratory-chain complexes assemble from subunits of dual genetic origin assisted by specialized assembly factors. Whereas core subunits are translated on mitochondrial ribosomes, others are imported after cytosolic translation. How imported subunits are ushered to assembly intermediates containing mitochondria-encoded subunits is unresolved. Here, we report a comprehensive dissection of early cytochrome c oxidase assembly intermediates containing proteins required for normal mitochondrial translation and reveal assembly factors promoting biogenesis of human respiratory-chain complexes. We find that TIM21, a subunit of the inner-membrane presequence translocase, is also present in the major assembly intermediates containing newly mitochondria-synthesized and imported respiratory-chain subunits, which we term MITRAC complexes. Human TIM21 is dispensable for protein import but required for integration of early-assembling, presequence-containing subunits into respiratory-chain intermediates. We establish an unexpected molecular link between the TIM23 transport machinery and assembly of respiratory-chain complexes that regulate mitochondrial protein synthesis in response to their assembly state.

A proximity-dependent biotinylation map of a human cell.

Compartmentalization is a defining characteristic of eukaryotic cells, and partitions distinct biochemical processes into discrete subcellular locations. Microscopy1 and biochemical fractionation coupled with mass spectrometry2-4 have defined the proteomes of a variety of different organelles, but many intracellular compartments have remained refractory to such approaches. Proximity-dependent biotinylation techniques such as BioID provide an alternative approach to define the composition of cellular compartments in living cells5-7. Here we present a BioID-based map of a human cell on the basis of 192 subcellular markers, and define the intracellular locations of 4,145 unique proteins in HEK293 cells. Our localization predictions exceed the specificity of previous approaches, and enabled the discovery of proteins at the interface between the mitochondrial outer membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum that are crucial for mitochondrial homeostasis. On the basis of this dataset, we created humancellmap.org as a community resource that provides online tools for localization analysis of user BioID data, and demonstrate how this resource can be used to understand BioID results better.

The human mitochondrial translation factor TACO1 alleviates mitoribosome stalling at polyproline stretches.

The prokaryotic translation elongation factor P (EF-P) and the eukaryotic/archaeal counterparts eIF5A/aIF5A are proteins that serve a crucial role in mitigating ribosomal stalling during the translation of specific sequences, notably those containing consecutive proline residues (1,2). Although mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins synthesized by mitochondrial ribosomes also contain polyproline stretches, an EF-P/eIF5A mitochondrial counterpart remains unidentified. Here, we show that the missing factor is TACO1, a protein causative of a juvenile form of neurodegenerative Leigh's syndrome associated with cytochrome c oxidase deficiency, until now believed to be a translational activator of COX1 mRNA. By using a combination of metabolic labeling, puromycin release and mitoribosome profiling experiments, we show that TACO1 is required for the rapid synthesis of the polyproline-rich COX1 and COX3 cytochrome c oxidase subunits, while its requirement is negligible for other mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins. In agreement with a role in translation efficiency regulation, we show that TACO1 cooperates with the N-terminal extension of the large ribosomal subunit bL27m to provide stability to the peptidyl-transferase center during elongation. This study illuminates the translation elongation dynamics within human mitochondria, a TACO1-mediated biological mechanism in place to mitigate mitoribosome stalling at polyproline stretches during protein synthesis, and the pathological implications of its malfunction.

BOLA3 and NFU1 link mitoribosome iron-sulfur cluster assembly to multiple mitochondrial dysfunctions syndrome.

The human mitochondrial ribosome contains three [2Fe-2S] clusters whose assembly pathway, role, and implications for mitochondrial and metabolic diseases are unknown. Here, structure-function correlation studies show that the clusters play a structural role during mitoribosome assembly. To uncover the assembly pathway, we have examined the effect of silencing the expression of Fe-S cluster biosynthetic and delivery factors on mitoribosome stability. We find that the mitoribosome receives its [2Fe-2S] clusters from the GLRX5-BOLA3 node. Additionally, the assembly of the small subunit depends on the mitoribosome biogenesis factor METTL17, recently reported containing a [4Fe-4S] cluster, which we propose is inserted via the ISCA1-NFU1 node. Consistently, fibroblasts from subjects suffering from 'multiple mitochondrial dysfunction' syndrome due to mutations in BOLA3 or NFU1 display previously unrecognized attenuation of mitochondrial protein synthesis that contributes to their cellular and pathophysiological phenotypes. Finally, we report that, in addition to their structural role, one of the mitoribosomal [2Fe-2S] clusters and the [4Fe-4S] cluster in mitoribosome assembly factor METTL17 sense changes in the redox environment, thus providing a way to regulate organellar protein synthesis accordingly.

Multi-OMICS study of a CHCHD10 variant causing ALS demonstrates metabolic rewiring and activation of endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial unfolded protein responses.

Mutations in CHCHD10, coding for a mitochondrial intermembrane space protein, are a rare cause of autosomal dominant amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mutation-specific toxic gain of function or haploinsufficiency models have been proposed to explain pathogenicity. To decipher the metabolic dysfunction associated with the haploinsufficient p.R15L variant, we integrated transcriptomic, metabolomic and proteomic data sets in patient cells subjected to an energetic stress that forces the cells to rely on oxidative phosphorylation for ATP production. Patient cells had a complex I deficiency that resulted in an increased NADH/NAD+ ratio, diminished TCA cycle activity, a reorganization of one carbon metabolism and an increased AMP/ATP ratio leading to phosphorylation of AMPK and inhibition of mTORC1. These metabolic changes activated the unfolded protein response (UPR) in the ER through the IRE1/XBP1 pathway, upregulating downstream targets including ATF3, ATF4, CHOP and EGLN3, and two cytokine markers of mitochondrial disease, GDF15 and FGF21. Activation of the mitochondrial UPR was mediated through an upregulation of the transcription factors ATF4 and ATF5, leading to increased expression of mitochondrial proteases and heat shock proteins. There was a striking transcriptional up regulation of at least seven dual specific phosphatases, associated with an almost complete dephosphorylation of JNK isoforms, suggesting a concerted deactivation of MAP kinase pathways. This study demonstrates that loss of CHCHD10 function elicits an energy deficit that activates unique responses to nutrient stress in both the mitochondria and ER, which may contribute to the selective vulnerability of motor neurons.

The Canadian Rare Diseases Models and Mechanisms (RDMM) Network: Connecting Understudied Genes to Model Organisms.

Advances in genomics have transformed our ability to identify the genetic causes of rare diseases (RDs), yet we have a limited understanding of the mechanistic roles of most genes in health and disease. When a novel RD gene is first discovered, there is minimal insight into its biological function, the pathogenic mechanisms of disease-causing variants, and how therapy might be approached. To address this gap, the Canadian Rare Diseases Models and Mechanisms (RDMM) Network was established to connect clinicians discovering new disease genes with Canadian scientists able to study equivalent genes and pathways in model organisms (MOs). The Network is built around a registry of more than 500 Canadian MO scientists, representing expertise for over 7,500 human genes. RDMM uses a committee process to identify and evaluate clinician-MO scientist collaborations and approve 25,000 Canadian dollars in catalyst funding. To date, we have made 85 clinician-MO scientist connections and funded 105 projects. These collaborations help confirm variant pathogenicity and unravel the molecular mechanisms of RD, and also test novel therapies and lead to long-term collaborations. To expand the impact and reach of this model, we made the RDMM Registry open-source, portable, and customizable, and we freely share our committee structures and processes. We are currently working with emerging networks in Europe, Australia, and Japan to link international RDMM networks and registries and enable matches across borders. We will continue to create meaningful collaborations, generate knowledge, and advance RD research locally and globally for the benefit of patients and families living with RD.

NPTX1 mutations trigger endoplasmic reticulum stress and cause autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxia.

With more than 40 causative genes identified so far, autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias exhibit a remarkable genetic heterogeneity. Yet, half the patients are lacking a molecular diagnosis. In a large family with nine sampled affected members, we performed exome sequencing combined with whole-genome linkage analysis. We identified a missense variant in NPTX1, NM_002522.3:c.1165G>A: p.G389R, segregating with the phenotype. Further investigations with whole-exome sequencing and an amplicon-based panel identified four additional unrelated families segregating the same variant, for whom a common founder effect could be excluded. A second missense variant, NM_002522.3:c.980A>G: p.E327G, was identified in a fifth familial case. The NPTX1-associated phenotype consists of a late-onset, slowly progressive, cerebellar ataxia, with downbeat nystagmus, cognitive impairment reminiscent of cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome, myoclonic tremor and mild cerebellar vermian atrophy on brain imaging. NPTX1 encodes the neuronal pentraxin 1, a secreted protein with various cellular and synaptic functions. Both variants affect conserved amino acid residues and are extremely rare or absent from public databases. In COS7 cells, overexpression of both neuronal pentraxin 1 variants altered endoplasmic reticulum morphology and induced ATF6-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress, associated with cytotoxicity. In addition, the p.E327G variant abolished neuronal pentraxin 1 secretion, as well as its capacity to form a high molecular weight complex with the wild-type protein. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments coupled with mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated abnormal interactions of this variant with the cytoskeleton. In agreement with these observations, in silico modelling of the neuronal pentraxin 1 complex evidenced a destabilizing effect for the p.E327G substitution, located at the interface between monomers. On the contrary, the p.G389 residue, located at the protein surface, had no predictable effect on the complex stability. Our results establish NPTX1 as a new causative gene in autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias. We suggest that variants in NPTX1 can lead to cerebellar ataxia due to endoplasmic reticulum stress, mediated by ATF6, and associated to a destabilization of NP1 polymers in a dominant-negative manner for one of the variants.

Human GTPBP5 (MTG2) fuels mitoribosome large subunit maturation by facilitating 16S rRNA methylation.

Biogenesis of mammalian mitochondrial ribosomes (mitoribosomes) involves several conserved small GTPases. Here, we report that the Obg family protein GTPBP5 or MTG2 is a mitochondrial protein whose absence in a TALEN-induced HEK293T knockout (KO) cell line leads to severely decreased levels of the 55S monosome and attenuated mitochondrial protein synthesis. We show that a fraction of GTPBP5 co-sediments with the large mitoribosome subunit (mtLSU), and crosslinks specifically with the 16S rRNA, and several mtLSU proteins and assembly factors. Notably, the latter group includes MTERF4, involved in monosome assembly, and MRM2, the methyltransferase that catalyzes the modification of the 16S mt-rRNA A-loop U1369 residue. The GTPBP5 interaction with MRM2 was also detected using the proximity-dependent biotinylation (BioID) assay. In GTPBP5-KO mitochondria, the mtLSU lacks bL36m, accumulates an excess of the assembly factors MTG1, GTPBP10, MALSU1 and MTERF4, and contains hypomethylated 16S rRNA. We propose that GTPBP5 primarily fuels proper mtLSU maturation by securing efficient methylation of two 16S rRNA residues, and ultimately serves to coordinate subunit joining through the release of late-stage mtLSU assembly factors. In this way, GTPBP5 provides an ultimate quality control checkpoint function during mtLSU assembly that minimizes premature subunit joining to ensure the assembly of the mature 55S monosome.

Loss of CHCHD10-CHCHD2 complexes required for respiration underlies the pathogenicity of a CHCHD10 mutation in ALS.

Coiled-helix coiled-helix domain containing protein 10 (CHCHD10) and its paralogue CHCHD2 belong to a family of twin CX9C motif proteins, most of which localize to the intermembrane space of mitochondria. Dominant mutations in CHCHD10 cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/frontotemporal dementia, and mutations in CHCHD2 have been associated with Parkinson's disease, but the function of these proteins remains unknown. Here we show that the p.R15L CHCHD10 variant in ALS patient fibroblasts destabilizes the protein, leading to a defect in the assembly of Complex I, impaired cellular respiration, mitochondrial hyperfusion, an increase in the steady-state level of CHCHD2, and a severe proliferation defect on galactose, a substrate that forces cells to synthesize virtually all of their ATP aerobically. CHCHD10 and CHCHD2 appeared together in distinct foci by immunofluorescence analysis and could be quantitatively immunoprecipitated with antibodies against either protein. Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analyses showed that both proteins migrated in a high molecular weight complex (220 kDa) in control cells, which was, however, absent in patient cells. CHCHD10 and CHCHD2 levels increased markedly in control cells in galactose medium, a response that was dampened in patient cells, and a new complex (40 kDa) appeared in both control and patient cells cultured in galactose. Re-entry of patient cells into the cell cycle, which occurred after prolonged culture in galactose, was associated with a marked increase in Complex I, and restoration of the oxygen consumption defect. Our results indicate that CHCHD10-CHCHD2 complexes are necessary for efficient mitochondrial respiration, and support a role for mitochondrial dysfunction in some patients with ALS.

Loss of hepatic LRPPRC alters mitochondrial bioenergetics, regulation of permeability transition and trans-membrane ROS diffusion.

The French-Canadian variant of Leigh Syndrome (LSFC) is an autosomal recessive oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) disorder caused by a mutation in LRPPRC, coding for a protein involved in the stability of mitochondrially-encoded mRNAs. Low levels of LRPPRC are present in all patient tissues, but result in a disproportionately severe OXPHOS defect in the brain and liver, leading to unpredictable subacute metabolic crises. To investigate the impact of the OXPHOS defect in the liver, we analyzed the mitochondrial phenotype in mice harboring an hepatocyte-specific inactivation of Lrpprc. Loss of LRPPRC in the liver caused a generalized growth delay, and typical histological features of mitochondrial hepatopathy. At the molecular level, LRPPRC deficiency caused destabilization of polyadenylated mitochondrial mRNAs, altered mitochondrial ultrastructure, and a severe complex IV (CIV) and ATP synthase (CV) assembly defect. The impact of LRPPRC deficiency was not limited to OXPHOS, but also included impairment of long-chain fatty acid oxidation, a striking dysregulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, and an unsuspected alteration of trans-membrane H2O2 diffusion, which was traced to the ATP synthase assembly defect, and to changes in the lipid composition of mitochondrial membranes. This study underscores the value of mitochondria phenotyping to uncover complex and unexpected mechanisms contributing to the pathophysiology of mitochondrial disorders.

A pseudouridine synthase module is essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis and cell viability.

Pseudouridylation is a common post-transcriptional modification in RNA, but its functional consequences at the cellular level remain largely unknown. Using a proximity-biotinylation assay, we identified a protein module in mitochondrial RNA granules, platforms for post-transcriptional RNA modification and ribosome assembly, containing several proteins of unknown function including three uncharacterized pseudouridine synthases, TRUB2, RPUSD3, and RPUSD4. TRUB2 and RPUSD4 were previously identified as core essential genes in CRISPR/Cas9 screens. Depletion of the individual enzymes produced specific mitochondrial protein synthesis and oxidative phosphorylation assembly defects without affecting mitochondrial mRNA levels. Investigation of the molecular targets in mitochondrial RNA by pseudouridine-Seq showed that RPUSD4 plays a role in the pseudouridylation of a single residue in the 16S rRNA, a modification that is essential for its stability and assembly into the mitochondrial ribosome, while TRUB2/RPUSD3 were similarly involved in pseudouridylating specific residues in mitochondrial mRNAs. These results establish essential roles for epitranscriptomic modification of mitochondrial RNA in mitochondrial protein synthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and cell survival.

Identification and functional characterization of a novel MTFMT mutation associated with selective vulnerability of the visual pathway and a mild neurological phenotype.

Mitochondrial protein synthesis is initiated by formylated tRNA-methionine, which requires the activity of MTFMT, a methionyl-tRNA formyltransferase. Mutations in MTFMT have been associated with Leigh syndrome, early-onset mitochondrial leukoencephalopathy, microcephaly, ataxia, and cardiomyopathy. We identified compound heterozygous MTFMT mutations in a patient with a mild neurological phenotype and late-onset progressive visual impairment. MRI studies documented a progressive and selective involvement of the retrochiasmatic visual pathway. MTFMT was undetectable by immunoblot analysis of patient fibroblasts, resulting in specific defects in mitochondrial protein synthesis and assembly of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes. This report expands the clinical and MRI phenotypes associated with MTFMT mutations, illustrating the complexity of genotype-phenotype relationships in mitochondrial translation disorders.

Tissue-specific responses to the LRPPRC founder mutation in French Canadian Leigh Syndrome.

French Canadian Leigh Syndrome (LSFC) is an early-onset, progressive neurodegenerative disorder with a distinct pattern of tissue involvement. Most cases are caused by a founder missense mutation in LRPPRC. LRPPRC forms a ribonucleoprotein complex with SLIRP, another RNA-binding protein, and this stabilizes polyadenylated mitochondrial mRNAs. LSFC fibroblasts have reduced levels of LRPPRC and a specific complex IV assembly defect; however, further depletion of mutant LRPPRC results in a complete failure to assemble a functional oxidative phosphorylation system, suggesting that LRPPRC levels determine the nature of the biochemical phenotype. We tested this hypothesis in cultured muscle cells and tissues from LSFC patients. LRPPRC levels were reduced in LSFC muscle cells, resulting in combined complex I and IV deficiencies. A similar combined deficiency was observed in skeletal muscle. Complex IV was only moderately reduced in LSFC heart, but was almost undetectable in liver. Both of these tissues showed elevated levels of complexes I and III. Despite the marked biochemical differences, the steady-state levels of LRPPRC and mitochondrial mRNAs were extremely low, LRPPRC was largely detergent-insoluble, and SLIRP was undetectable in all LSFC tissues. The level of the LRPPRC/SLIRP complex appeared much reduced in control tissues by the first dimension blue-native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) analysis compared with fibroblasts, and even by second dimension analysis it was virtually undetectable in control heart. These results point to tissue-specific pathways for the post-transcriptional handling of mitochondrial mRNAs and suggest that the biochemical defects in LSFC reflect the differential ability of tissues to adapt to the mutation.

An N-terminal formyl methionine on COX 1 is required for the assembly of cytochrome c oxidase.

Protein synthesis in mitochondria is initiated by formylmethionyl-tRNA(Met) (fMet-tRNA(Met)), which requires the activity of the enzyme MTFMT to formylate the methionyl group. We investigated the molecular consequences of mutations in MTFMT in patients with Leigh syndrome or cardiomyopathy. All patients studied were compound heterozygotes. Levels of MTFMT in patient fibroblasts were almost undetectable by immunoblot analysis, and BN-PAGE analysis showed a combined oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) assembly defect involving complexes I, IV and V. The synthesis of only a subset of mitochondrial polypeptides (ND5, ND4, ND1, COXII) was decreased, whereas all others were translated at normal or even increased rates. Expression of the wild-type cDNA rescued the biochemical phenotype when MTFMT was expressed near control levels, but overexpression produced a dominant-negative phenotype, completely abrogating assembly of the OXPHOS complexes, suggesting that MTFMT activity must be tightly regulated. fMet-tRNA(Met) was almost undetectable in control cells and absent in patient cells by high-resolution northern blot analysis, but accumulated in cells overexpressing MTFMT. Newly synthesized COXI was under-represented in complex IV immunoprecipitates from patient fibroblasts, and two-dimensional BN-PAGE analysis of newly synthesized mitochondrial translation products showed an accumulation of free COXI. Quantitative mass spectrophotometry of an N-terminal COXI peptide showed that the ratio of formylated to unmodified N-termini in the assembled complex IV was ∼350:1 in controls and 4:1 in patient cells. These results show that mitochondrial protein synthesis can occur with inefficient formylation of methionyl-tRNA(Met), but that assembly of complex IV is impaired if the COXI N-terminus is not formylated.

The 3' addition of CCA to mitochondrial tRNASer(AGY) is specifically impaired in patients with mutations in the tRNA nucleotidyl transferase TRNT1.

Addition of the trinucleotide cytosine/cytosine/adenine (CCA) to the 3' end of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) is essential for translation and is catalyzed by the enzyme TRNT1 (tRNA nucleotidyl transferase), which functions in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria. Exome sequencing revealed TRNT1 mutations in two unrelated subjects with different clinical features. The first presented with acute lactic acidosis at 3 weeks of age and developed severe developmental delay, hypotonia, microcephaly, seizures, progressive cortical atrophy, neurosensorial deafness, sideroblastic anemia and renal Fanconi syndrome, dying at 21 months. The second presented at 3.5 years with gait ataxia, dysarthria, gross motor regression, hypotonia, ptosis and ophthalmoplegia and had abnormal signals in brainstem and dentate nucleus. In subject 1, muscle biopsy showed combined oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) defects, but there was no OXPHOS deficiency in fibroblasts from either subject, despite a 10-fold-reduction in TRNT1 protein levels in fibroblasts of the first subject. Furthermore, in normal controls, TRNT1 protein levels are 10-fold lower in muscle than in fibroblasts. High resolution northern blots of subject fibroblast RNA suggested incomplete CCA addition to the non-canonical mitochondrial tRNA(Ser(AGY)), but no obvious qualitative differences in other mitochondrial or cytoplasmic tRNAs. Complete knockdown of TRNT1 in patient fibroblasts rendered mitochondrial tRNA(Ser(AGY)) undetectable, and markedly reduced mitochondrial translation, except polypeptides lacking Ser(AGY) codons. These data suggest that the clinical phenotypes associated with TRNT1 mutations are largely due to impaired mitochondrial translation, resulting from defective CCA addition to mitochondrial tRNA(Ser(AGY)), and that the severity of this biochemical phenotype determines the severity and tissue distribution of clinical features.

Sacs knockout mice present pathophysiological defects underlying autosomal recessive spastic ataxia of Charlevoix-Saguenay.

Autosomal recessive spastic ataxia of Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS [MIM 270550]) is an early-onset neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutations in the SACS gene. Over 170 SACS mutations have been reported worldwide and are thought to cause loss of function of sacsin, a poorly characterized and massive 520 kDa protein. To establish an animal model and to examine the pathophysiological basis of ARSACS, we generated Sacs knockout (Sacs(-/-)) mice. Null animals displayed an abnormal gait with progressive motor, cerebellar and peripheral nerve dysfunctions highly reminiscent of ARSACS. These clinical features were accompanied by an early onset, progressive loss of cerebellar Purkinje cells followed by spinal motor neuron loss and peripheral neuropathy. Importantly, loss of sacsin function resulted in abnormal accumulation of non-phosphorylated neurofilament (NF) bundles in the somatodendritic regions of vulnerable neuronal populations, a phenotype also observed in an ARSACS brain. Moreover, motor neurons cultured from Sacs(-/-) embryos exhibited a similar NF rearrangement with significant reduction in mitochondrial motility and elongated mitochondria. The data points to alterations in the NF cytoskeleton and defects in mitochondrial dynamics as the underlying pathophysiological basis of ARSACS.

Inborn Error of Cobalamin Metabolism Associated with the Intracellular Accumulation of Transcobalamin-Bound Cobalamin and Mutations in ZNF143, Which Codes for a Transcriptional Activator.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin, Cbl) cofactors adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl) and methylcobalamin (MeCbl) are required for the activity of the enzymes methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM) and methionine synthase (MS). Inborn errors of Cbl metabolism are rare Mendelian disorders associated with hematological and neurological manifestations, and elevations of methylmalonic acid and/or homocysteine in the blood and urine. We describe a patient whose fibroblasts had decreased functional activity of MCM and MS and decreased synthesis of AdoCbl and MeCbl (3.4% and 1.0% of cellular Cbl, respectively). The defect in cultured patient fibroblasts complemented those from all known complementation groups. Patient cells accumulated transcobalamin-bound-Cbl, a complex which usually dissociates in the lysosome to release free Cbl. Whole-exome sequencing identified putative disease-causing variants c.851T>G (p.L284*) and c.1019C>T (p.T340I) in transcription factor ZNF143. Proximity biotinylation analysis confirmed the interaction between ZNF143 and HCFC1, a protein that regulates expression of the Cbl trafficking enzyme MMACHC. qRT-PCR analysis revealed low MMACHC expression levels both in patient fibroblasts, and in control fibroblasts incubated with ZNF143 siRNA.