Short-term high-intensity interval training exercise does not affect gut bacterial community diversity or composition of lean and overweight men.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Does short-term high-intensity interval training alter the composition of the microbiome and is this associated with exercise-induced improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness and insulin sensitivity? What is the main finding and its importance? Although high-intensity interval training increased insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular fitness, it did not alter the composition of the microbiome. This suggests that changes in the composition of the microbiome that occur with prolonged exercise training might be in response to changes in metabolic health rather than driving exercise training-induced adaptations. ABSTRACT: Regular exercise reduces the risk of metabolic diseases, and the composition of the gut microbiome has been associated with metabolic function. We investigated whether short-term high-intensity interval training (HIIT) altered the diversity and composition of the bacterial community and whether there were associations with markers of insulin sensitivity or aerobic fitness. Cardiorespiratory fitness ( V̇O2peak ) and body composition (dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan) were assessed and faecal and fasted blood samples collected from 14 lean (fat mass 21 ± 2%, aged 29 ± 2 years) and 15 overweight (fat mass 33 ± 2%, aged 31 ± 2 years) men before and after 3 weeks of HIIT training (8-12 × 60 s cycle ergometer bouts at V̇O2peak power output interspersed by 75 s rest, three times per week). Gut microbiome composition was analysed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. The HIIT significantly increased the aerobic fitness of both groups (P < 0.001) and improved markers of insulin sensitivity (lowered fasted insulin and HOMA-IR; P < 0.001) in the overweight group. Despite differences in the abundance of several bacterial taxa being evident between the lean and overweight group, HIIT did not affect the overall bacterial diversity or community structure (α-diversity or ß-diversity). No associations were found between the top 50 most abundant bacterial genera and cardiorespiratory fitness markers; however, significant associations (P < 0.05) were observed between the abundance of the bacterial species Coprococcus_3, Blautia, Lachnospiraceae_ge and Dorea and insulin sensitivity markers in the overweight group. Our results suggest that short-term HIIT does not greatly impact the overall composition of the gut microbiome, but that certain microbiome genera are associated with insulin sensitivity markers that were improved by HIIT in overweight participants.

Sleep timing is associated with diet and physical activity levels in 9-11-year-old children from Dunedin, New Zealand: the PEDALS study.

It is well documented that short sleep duration is associated with excess body weight and poor food intake in children. It has been suggested that sleep timing behaviour may also be an important predictor of weight and other related behaviours, independent of sleep duration; however, there is a lack of research investigating these relationships. The present study investigated sleep timing in association with diet and physical activity levels in 439 children aged 9-11 years old from New Zealand. Sleep and physical activity data were collected using accelerometry, and food choice using a short food-frequency questionnaire. Participants were classified into one of four sleep timing behaviour categories using the median split for sleep-onset and -offset times. Differences between sleep timing groups for weekly consumption frequency of selected food groups, dietary pattern scores and minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were examined. Children in the late sleep/late wake category had a lower 'Fruit & Vegetables' pattern score [mean difference (95% CI): -0.3 (-0.5, -0.1)], a lower consumption frequency of fruit and vegetables [mean weekly difference (95% CI): -2.9 (-4.9, -0.9)] and a higher consumption frequency of sweetened beverages [mean weekly difference (95% CI): 1.8 (0.2, 3.3)] compared with those in the early sleep/early wake category. Additionally, children in the late sleep/late wake category accumulated fewer minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day compared with those in the early sleep/early wake category [mean difference (95% CI): -9.4 (-15.3, -3.5)]. These findings indicate that sleep timing, even after controlling for sleep duration, was associated with both food consumption and physical activity.

Cardiorespiratory fitness is positively associated with a healthy dietary pattern in New Zealand adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and dietary patterns in adolescents. DESIGN: Food choice was assessed using the validated New Zealand Adolescent FFQ. Principal components analysis was used to determine dietary patterns. Trained research assistants measured participants' height and body mass. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed in a subset of participants using the multistage 20 m shuttle run. The level and stage were recorded, and the corresponding VO2max was calculated. Differences in mean VO2max according to sex and BMI were assessed using t tests, while associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and dietary patterns were examined using linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, school attended, socio-economic deprivation and BMI. SETTING: Secondary schools in Otago, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: Students (n 279) aged 14-18 years who completed an online lifestyle survey during a class period. RESULTS: Principal components analysis produced three dietary patterns: 'Treat Foods', 'Fruits and Vegetables' and 'Basic Foods'. The 279 participants who provided questionnaire data and completed cardiorespiratory fitness testing had a mean age of 15·7 (sd 0·9) years. Mean VO2max was 45·8 (sd 6·9) ml/kg per min. The 'Fruits and Vegetables' pattern was positively associated with VO2max in the total sample (ß=0·04; 95%CI 0·02, 0·07), girls (ß=0·06; 95% CI 0·03, 0·10) and boys (ß=0·03; 95% CI 0·01, 0·05). CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that increase in cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with a healthier dietary pattern, suggesting both should be targeted as part of a global lifestyle approach. Longitudinal studies are needed to confirm this association in relation to health outcomes in New Zealand adolescents.

Associations between parental feeding practices, problem food behaviours and dietary intake in New Zealand overweight children aged 4-8 years.

OBJECTIVE: Parents report that children's eating behaviours are a major barrier to providing them with a healthy diet. Links between problem eating behaviours and parental feeding practices are not well established and have not previously been examined in overweight children. The aim of the present study was to assess associations between problem food behaviours, dietary intake and parental feeding practices of overweight children aged 4-8 years. DESIGN: Participants were recruited for a lifestyle intervention (n 203). At baseline, children's BMI was measured and parents completed comprehensive questionnaires about the feeding practices they used, the problem food behaviours their children exhibited and the foods their child consumed. A fussy eating scale was developed and associations were determined using correlations and regression analysis, including interactions. SETTING: Dunedin, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: Overweight children aged 4-8 years. RESULTS: Healthy eating guidance and monitoring by parents were related to the consumption of fewer unhealthy foods (B=-0·4, P=0·001 and B=-0·4, P<0·001). Conversely, a lack of parental control (child control) was related to a higher intake of unhealthy foods (B = 0·5, P<0·001). Parents of children who were fussy eaters monitored their child's food intake less (P<0·001) and allowed the child more freedom over what he/she ate (P<0·001). These children consumed fewer fruit and vegetables than those who were not fussy eaters (P<0·001). However, fussy eaters with food-restrictive parents ate more fruit and vegetables (B=2·9, P<0·001). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a more structured food environment might be beneficial for the diet and food behaviours of young overweight children.

Diet quality is associated with measures of body fat in adolescents from Otago, New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the potential associations between diet quality and multiple measures of body composition in a sample of New Zealand adolescents aged 14-18 years. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of eleven high schools in Otago, New Zealand. Each participant completed an online FFQ and a New Zealand Diet Quality Index for Adolescents (NZDQI-A) score was calculated based on variety and adequacy of intake for five major food groups. Besides height and waist circumference measurements, body composition was assessed using segmental bio-impedance analysis. Generalized estimating equations were used to examine associations between diet quality and body composition in models adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity and socio-economic status. SETTING: High schools in Otago, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: High-school students (n 681, 56 % male, mean age 16·1 (sd 1·5) years) participating in the Otago School Students Lifestyle Survey Two. RESULTS: Higher NZDQI-A scores were significantly associated with lower body fat percentage (ß=-0·19; 95 % CI -0·35, -0·04; P=0·014), fat-to-lean mass ratio (ß=-0·26; 95 % CI -0·46, -0·05; P=0·016) and lower fat mass index (ß=-0·23; 95 % CI -0·45, -0·004; P=0·046) after multivariate adjustment. No association was found between NZDQI-A and BMI, waist circumference or waist-to-height ratio. CONCLUSIONS: Diet quality, as measured by NZDQI-A, was associated only with measures of body fat, not measures of overall body size. Measures specific to body fat should be used for more accurate ascertainment of body composition in examining the diet-body composition associations in this age group.

Healthy dietary habits score as an indicator of diet quality in New Zealand adolescents.

Adoption of optimal dietary habits during adolescence is associated with better health outcomes later in life. However, the associations between a pattern of healthy dietary habits encapsulated in an index and sociodemographic and nutrient intake have not been examined among adolescents. This study aimed to develop a behavior-based diet index and examine its validity in relation to sociodemographic factors, nutrient intakes, and biomarkers in a representative sample of New Zealand (NZ) adolescents aged 15-18 y (n = 694). A 17-item Healthy Dietary Habits Score for Adolescents (HDHS-A) was developed based on dietary habits information from the 2008/2009 NZ Adult Nutrition Survey. Post hoc trend analyses were used to identify the associations between HDHS-A score and nutrient intakes estimated by single 24-h diet recalls and selected nutritional biomarkers. Being female, not of Maori or Pacific ethnicity, and living in the least-deprived socioeconomic quintile were associated with a higher HDHS-A score (all P < 0.001). HDHS-A tertile was associated positively with intake of protein, dietary fiber, polyunsaturated fatty acid, and lactose and negatively with sucrose. Associations in the expected directions were also found with most micronutrients (P < 0.05), urinary sodium (P < 0.001), whole blood (P < 0.05), serum (P < 0.01), and RBC folate (P < 0.05) concentrations. This suggests that the HDHS-A is a valid indicator of diet quality among NZ adolescents.

A comprehensive FFQ developed for use in New Zealand adults: reliability and validity for nutrient intakes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the reliability and relative validity of a semi-quantitative FFQ for assessing the habitual intake of multiple nutrients in New Zealand (NZ) adults over the past 12 months. DESIGN: A 154-item FFQ was developed. After initial pre-testing, reliability was assessed using intra-class correlations. Relative validity was assessed by comparing nutrient intakes derived from the FFQ v. those from an 8 d diet record (8dWDR) collected over 12 months and selected blood biomarkers, using Spearman correlations. Supplementary cross-classification and Bland-Altman analyses were performed to assess validity of the FFQ v. the 8dWDR. SETTING: Dunedin, NZ. SUBJECTS: One hundred and thirty-two males and females aged 30-59 years who completed all FFQ and 8dWDR and provided a blood sample. RESULTS: Reliability coefficients ranged from 0·47 for Ca to 0·83 for alcohol, with most values falling between 0·60 and 0·80. The highest validity coefficients for energy-adjusted data were observed for alcohol (0·74), cholesterol (0·65) and ß-carotene (0·58), and the lowest for Zn (0·24) and Ca (0·28). For all energy-adjusted nutrients mean percentage correct classification was 77·9% and gross misclassification was 4·5%. Results of Bland-Altman analyses showed wide limits of agreement for all micronutrients but high agreement was observed for most macronutrients (99% for protein, 103% for total fat). When compared with biomarkers, energy-adjusted coefficients were 0·34 for ß-carotene and 0·33 for vitamin C. CONCLUSIONS: The FFQ provides highly repeatable measurements and good validity in ranking individuals' intake, suggesting that it will be a useful tool to assess nutrient intake of NZ adults in future research.

Dieting status influences associations between dietary patterns and body composition in adolescents: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Associations between food choice and body composition in previous studies of adolescents have been inconsistent. This may be due to the body composition measures used, or these associations may be affected by the dieting status of adolescents. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between dietary patterns and body composition in adolescents, and determine if these associations are moderated by dieting status. METHODS: Information on food consumption and current dieting status was collected, using a web-based survey, in 681 adolescents (mean age 15.8 (SD 0.9) years) from schools in Otago, New Zealand. Non-dieters were defined as those reporting not being on a diet as they were "happy with their weight". Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to determine dietary patterns. Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), fat mass index (FMI), and fat-free mass index (FFMI) were examined as outcomes. Generalized estimating equations were used to examine associations between dietary patterns and body composition. RESULTS: PCA produced three dietary patterns: 'Treat Foods', 'Fruits and Vegetables', and 'Basic Foods'. A standard deviation increase in 'Basic Foods' was associated with a 3.58% decrease in FMI (95%CI -6.14, -0.94) in the total sample. When separate sex analysis was undertaken significant negative associations were found in boys only, between the 'Basic Food' score and WC, WHtR, FMI, and FFMI, while the 'Fruits and Vegetables' pattern was negatively associated with FMI. Associations between 'Treat Foods' and BMI, WC, and WHtR in non-dieters were positive, while these associations were negative for all other participants. CONCLUSIONS: Significant associations were found between dietary patterns and indices of both central and total adiposity, but not BMI. Therefore using only BMI measures may not be useful in this age group. Since our results were significant for boys and not girls, nutrition messages designed to prevent obesity may be particularly important for adolescent boys. As an interaction between dieting status and 'Treat Foods' existed, future studies should also explore the role of dieting when investigating food choice and body composition.

Sleep duration and adiposity in older adolescents from Otago, New Zealand: relationships differ between boys and girls and are independent of food choice.

BACKGROUND: While relationships between sleep and BMI have been extensively studied in younger children the effect of sleep duration on adiposity in adolescents, who are undergoing rapid growth periods, is less well known. There is also a lack of consistent evidence on the role of sleep on other measures of adolescent body composition which may be more reflective of health than BMI in this age group. Previous research investigating whether these relationships differ between sexes is also inconsistent. Therefore the objective of this study was to investigate relationships between sleep duration and multiple body composition measures in older adolescents and to investigate if these relationships differ between boys and girls. METHODS: A web-based cross-sectional survey and anthropometric measurement of 685 adolescents (mean age 15.8 years) from 11 schools in Otago, New Zealand. Height and weight were measured by trained researchers and fat mass and fat-free mass were estimated using bio-impedance. Generalised estimating equations were used to examine associations between sleep duration and the following body composition measures: BMI, waist circumference (WC), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), fat mass index (FMI), and fat-free mass index (FFMI). Analyses were adjusted for ethnicity, deprivation, the number of screens in the bedroom and fruit and vegetable consumption. RESULTS: When data from all participants were analysed together, no significant relationships were seen between sleep duration and any body composition measure but significant sex interactions were seen. An hour increase in average nightly sleep duration in boys only was associated with decreases of 1.2% for WC, 0.9% for WHtR, 4.5% for FMI and 1.4% for FFMI in multivariate models. Similar results were seen for weekday and weekend night sleep duration. CONCLUSIONS: Sex specific factors may play a role in relationships between sleep and body composition in older adolescents. The results in boys were most pronounced for FMI, a measure of total adiposity, which suggests that insufficient sleep in adolescent boys may affect fat mass more than lean mass and that the use of measures such as BMI may result in an under-estimation of relationships.

Attitudes to food differ between adolescent dieters and non-dieters from Otago, New Zealand, but overall food intake does not.

OBJECTIVE: There is increasing pressure for adolescents to be thin and this may not always be acted upon in healthy ways; for example, certain foods or food groups may be restricted or meals skipped. As foods are not eaten in isolation it is useful to examine dietary patterns and associated psychosocial factors to better understand eating behaviour. The aim of the present study was to identify correlates of 'dieting' in adolescents from Otago, New Zealand. DESIGN: A web-based survey was conducted in 2009, collecting information on food consumption and factors potentially associated with food consumption. Principal components analysis was used to investigate dietary patterns. Correlates were examined in 1329 students using multiple logistic regression analysis. SETTING: Nineteen secondary schools in the province of Otago, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: Students from school years 9 and 10 (mean age 14.1 (SD 0.7) years). RESULTS: There was no relationship between dieting and dietary patterns. Those not dieting were 17 % (95 % CI 7, 26 %) more likely to eat lunch and 22 % (95 % CI 3, 37 %) more likely to eat an evening meal on one more weekday than those who were dieting. Those who reported dieting were more likely to report healthiness (OR = 2.18, 95 % CI 1.11, 4.26) as an important factor when choosing food and that eating fruit and vegetables makes you better looking. No sex by dieting interaction was found. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, while there was no difference in actual food consumption between dieters and non-dieters, there were significant differences in attitudes to food.

Development and validation of a food-based diet quality index for New Zealand adolescents.

BACKGROUND: As there is no population-specific, simple food-based diet index suitable for examination of diet quality in New Zealand (NZ) adolescents, there is a need to develop such a tool. Therefore, this study aimed to develop an adolescent-specific diet quality index based on dietary information sourced from a Food Questionnaire (FQ) and examine its validity relative to a four-day estimated food record (4DFR) obtained from a group of adolescents aged 14 to 18 years. METHODS: A diet quality index for NZ adolescents (NZDQI-A) was developed based on 'Adequacy' and 'Variety' of five food groups reflecting the New Zealand Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy Adolescents. The NZDQI-A was scored from zero to 100, with a higher score reflecting a better diet quality. Forty-one adolescents (16 males, 25 females, aged 14-18 years) each completed the FQ and a 4DFR. The test-retest reliability of the FQ-derived NZDQI-A scores over a two-week period and the relative validity of the scores compared to the 4DFR were estimated using Pearson's correlations. Construct validity was examined by comparing NZDQI-A scores against nutrient intakes obtained from the 4DFR. RESULTS: The NZDQI-A derived from the FQ showed good reliability (r = 0.65) and reasonable agreement with 4DFR in ranking participants by scores (r = 0.39). More than half of the participants were classified into the same thirds of scores while 10% were misclassified into the opposite thirds by the two methods. Higher NZDQI-A scores were also associated with lower total fat and saturated fat intakes and higher iron intakes. CONCLUSIONS: Higher NZDQI-A scores were associated with more desirable fat and iron intakes. The scores derived from either FQ or 4DFR were comparable and reproducible when repeated within two weeks. The NZDQI-A is relatively valid and reliable in ranking diet quality in adolescents at a group level even in a small sample size. Further studies are required to test the predictive validity of this food-based diet index in larger samples.

Factor analysis of the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire in a large sample of children.

How parents feed their children may impact on their weight and eating behaviours, both now and in the future. The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) proposes to measure parental feeding practices and was originally developed using 12 factors in relatively small, homogenous samples. In contrast the present study used a large, diverse sample (n=1013) of children aged 4-8years. A confirmatory factor analysis showed that the original 12-factor model was not a good fit and that several factors were strongly inter-correlated. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis yielded five scales of interest: Healthy Eating Guidance, Monitoring, Parent Pressure, Restriction and Child Control. These scales were largely supported by further analyses in these data. Parents who were concerned about their child being overweight reported more Healthy Eating Guidance and Restriction and less Parent Pressure, whereas parents concerned about their child being underweight used more Parent Pressure and less Healthy Eating Guidance. Parents who rated a healthy diet for their child as very important undertook more Healthy Eating Guidance and Monitoring of food intake and less Child Control. These five factors from the CFPQ provide a well-supported and useful set of feeding practices that could be applicable to a wide variety of population groups.

Reliability and relative validity of a food frequency questionnaire to assess food group intakes in New Zealand adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Due to the absence of a current and validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for use in New Zealand adolescents, there is a need to develop one as a cost-effective way to assess adolescents' food patterns. This study aims to examine the test-retest reliability and relative validity of the New Zealand Adolescent FFQ (NZAFFQ) to assess food group intake in adolescents aged 14 to 18 years. METHODS: A non-quantitative (without portion size), 72-item FFQ was developed and pretested. Fifty-two participants (aged 14.9 ± 0.8 years) completed the NZAFFQ twice within a two-week period for test-retest reliability. Forty-one participants (aged 15.1 ± 0.9 years) completed a four-day estimated food record (4DFR) in addition to the FFQs to enable assessment of validity. Spearman's correlations and cross-classification analyses were used to examine relative validity while intra-class correlations were additionally used for test-retest reliability. RESULTS: Weekly intakes were estimated for each food item and aggregated into 34 food groups. The median Spearman's correlation coefficient (SCC) between FFQ administrations was 0.71. SCCs ranged from 0.46 for fruit juice or cordial to 0.87 for non-standard milk. The median intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) between FFQ administrations was 0.69. The median SCC between food groups from the FFQ and the 4DFR was 0.40 with the highest SCC seen for standard milk (0.70). The exact agreement between the methods in ranking participants into thirds was highest for meat alternatives (78%), but lowest for red or yellow vegetables and potatoes (27%). The mean percent of participants misclassified into extreme thirds for food group intake was 12%. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a small sample size, the NZAFFQ exhibited good to excellent short-term test-retest reliability and reasonable validity in ranking the majority of the food group intakes among adolescents aged 14 to 18 years. The comparability of the validity to that in the current literature suggests that the NZAFFQ may be used among adolescent New Zealanders to identify dietary patterns and rank them according to food group intake.

Energy intakes of ultraendurance cyclists during competition, an observational study.

Endurance events>10 hr are becoming increasingly popular but provide numerous physiological challenges, several of which can be attenuated with optimal nutritional intakes. Previous studies in ultraendurance races have reported large energy deficits during events. The authors therefore aimed to assess nutritional intakes in relation to performance among ultraendurance cyclists. This observational study included 18 cyclists in a 384-km cycle race. At race registration each cyclist's support crew was provided with a food diary for their cyclist. On completion of the race, cyclists were asked to recall their race food and drink intakes. All food and fluids were analyzed using a computer software package. Mean (SD) time to complete the race was 16 hr 21 min (2 hr 2 min). Mean (SD) energy intake was 18.7 (8.6) MJ, compared with an estimated energy requirement for the race of 25.5 (7.4) MJ. There was a significant negative relationship between energy intake and time taken to complete the race (p=.023, r²=-.283). Mean (SD) carbohydrate, fat, and protein intakes were 52 (27), 15.84 (56.43), and 2.94 (7.25) g/hr, respectively. Only carbohydrate (p=.015, r²=-.563) and fat intake (p=.037, r²=-.494) were associated with time taken to complete the race. This study demonstrates the difficulties in meeting the high energy demands of ultraendurance cycling. The relationship between energy intake and performance suggests that reducing the energy deficit may be advantageous. Given the high carbohydrate intakes of these athletes, increasing energy intake from fat should be investigated as a means of decreasing energy deficits.

Nutrients and foods consumed by New Zealand children on schooldays and non-schooldays.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and compare food and nutrient intakes in New Zealand (NZ) children on schooldays and non-schooldays. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from the NZ 2002 Children's Nutrition Survey. Dietary intake was assessed using computer-assisted multi-pass 24 h dietary recalls in the home. Data were adjusted for survey weightings to be representative of the NZ population. The effect of day category on nutrient intake, and likelihood of consumption of food categories were determined using linear and logistic regression. SETTING: NZ homes and schools. SUBJECTS: A total of 2572 children (538 non-schooldays and 2034 schooldays) at the age of 5-14 years. RESULTS: There were differences in the proportion consuming some food groups between schooldays and non-schooldays, although the majority of nutrient intakes including energy did not differ by day category. Mean cholesterol intake was higher on non-schooldays; dietary fibre and available carbohydrate, in particular sucrose and fructose, were higher on schooldays. Hot chips were twice as likely to be consumed on a non-schoolday. Soft drink consumption was higher on non-schooldays for Maori/New Zealand European and others and powdered drinks/cordial consumption did not vary by day category. More children consumed snack bars (normal weight, obese), fruit, sandwiches, biscuits/crackers and snack foods on schooldays. There was no difference in consumption of pies/sausage rolls by day category. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of consumers of a variety of foods differed significantly between non-schooldays and schooldays; few nutrient intakes differed. The present study indicates that family food, wherever it is consumed, is the mainstay of nutrition for NZ schoolchildren.

What children eat during afternoons and evenings: is it important?

OBJECTIVE: To complete a description of the dietary intakes of New Zealand schoolchildren by describing afternoon and evening foods and nutrients. DESIGN: Twenty-four hour dietary recall data from the 2002 Children's Nutrition Survey were analysed to describe food and nutrient intakes during the afternoon (14.00 to 16.59 hours) and evening (17.00 to 23.59 hours). SETTING: New Zealand homes and schools. SUBJECTS: Children (n 2875) aged 5-14 years. RESULTS: Most children consumed something during the afternoon (79 %) and evening (98 %). Children were less likely to consume something during non-school day afternoons; if 11-14 years of age; and when of Pacific ethnicity. Afternoon food consumers had higher daily intakes for most nutrients. Afternoon intake accounted for much of this difference. In the afternoon, children consumed fruit (26 %) and biscuits/crackers (21 %). Evening eating contributed to daily intakes of energy (40 %), fat (43 %), carbohydrate (35 %), sucrose (20 %), glucose (24 %), vitamin A (47 %), Ca (26 %) and Fe (40 %). Children aged 5-6 years consumed a lower proportion of their daily energy intake during the evening than older children. In the evening, just one-third of children consumed vegetables (45 % if including potato/kumara/taro), 19 % fruit and 17 % ate hot chips. Children were more likely to consume vegetables if they also consumed potato/kumara/taro. Twenty-three per cent of children had powdered drinks/cordials, 21 % had soft drinks and 19 % had milk. CONCLUSIONS: Consuming foods/drinks in the afternoon positively influenced macronutrient distribution, increasing the carbohydrate proportion. During the evening 40 % of energy intake was consumed but less than one-half of children consumed vegetables; thus inclusion of vegetables in the evening is important, particularly in meals without potato/kumara/taro.

Dietary patterns and smoking in Northern Irish men: a population at high risk of coronary heart disease.

This study evaluated dietary habits of Northern Irish men who are at high risk of cardiovascular disease, stratified as never-, ex-, moderate-, or heavy-smokers. Participants were male volunteers (30 - 49 years) from a single workforce in Belfast (n = 765). Dietary information was collected using a validated food frequency questionnaire. For 'a priori' diet scores, never- and ex-smokers had a significantly higher fruit and vegetable score, Mediterranean diet score, and alternative Mediterranean diet score than moderate or heavy-smokers (all p < 0.05). For 'a posteriori' patterns, scores for the healthy, sweet tooth, and traditional dietary patterns, derived from principal component analysis, differed significantly by smoking status, being lower among smokers for the healthy and sweet tooth patterns, and higher in ex-smokers for the traditional pattern (all p < 0.05). When the 'a posteriori' patterns were included in models predicting likelihood of being in a particular smoking category with the 'a priori' patterns, the results for the fruit and vegetable score lost significance (p = 0.13). Both 'a priori' and 'a posteriori' dietary patterns identified smokers, particularly heavy smokers, as exhibiting fewer healthy dietary habits than never- or ex-smokers, but 'a posteriori' dietary patterns appeared to be more strongly associated with smoking status.

The effect of increasing consumption of pulses and wholegrains in obese people: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Wholegrain intake is inversely related to weight gain over time, but little information is available on the role of pulses in weight control. OBJECTIVE: To compare weight loss, metabolic outcomes, and nutrient intakes in obese people assigned to a diet rich in pulses and wholegrains or a control diet. METHODS: Randomized controlled study of 18 months with 113 volunteers (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 28 kg/m(2)). Diets were based on guidelines published by the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand. The intervention group was advised to consume 2 serves of pulses and 4 serves of wholegrain foods per day as substitutions for more refined carbohydrates. RESULTS: Fiber intakes were higher, intakes of several vitamins and minerals were better maintained, and dietary glycemic index was lower in the intervention compared with the control group. Mean (standard error [SE]) weight loss at 6 months was 6.0 (0.7) kg and 6.3 (0.6) kg in the control and intervention groups, respectively, and was not different between groups (p > 0.05). Blood pressure, triglycerides, and glycemic load were lowered in both groups compared with baseline. Waist circumference was decreased at 18 months in the intervention compared with the control group (-2.8 cm; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.4, -5.1). CONCLUSIONS: Incorporation of pulses and wholegrain foods into a weight loss program resulted in a greater reduction in waist circumference compared with the group consuming a control diet, although no difference in weight loss was noted between groups. Retention of several nutrients was better with the pulse and wholegrain diet.

Effect of supplementation with B vitamins and antioxidants on levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and C-reactive protein (CRP): a double-blind, randomised, factorial design, placebo-controlled trial.

PURPOSE: Cardiovascular risk factors such as elevated levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA)/C-reactive protein (CRP) and homocysteine are potentially related to essential micronutrients such as certain B vitamins and antioxidant vitamins. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether supplementation with moderate doses of B vitamins and/or antioxidants could alter either ADMA and/or CRP concentrations in middle-aged, apparently healthy men with mildly elevated homocysteine levels. METHODS: A randomised, double-blind, factorial design, intervention study was carried out on 132 men with mildly elevated homocysteine levels, allocated to four groups (a) B vitamins alone--1 mg folic acid, 7.2 mg pyridoxine, 0.02 mg cyanocobalamin daily, (b) antioxidants alone--150 mg ascorbic acid, 67 mg vitamin E, 9 mg ß-carotene daily, (c) B vitamins with antioxidant vitamins, or (d) placebo. A total of 101 men completed the study to 8 weeks. RESULTS: When the percentage of baseline ADMA and CRP was examined at 8 weeks, no statistically significant differences were observed between the four groups (p = 0.21 and p = 0.90, respectively). Similar non-significant results were observed when analysis was stratified based on baseline CRP levels (<1.0 mg/L, p = 0.10; ≥1.0 mg/L, p = 0.64) and smoking status (all p ≥ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Supplementation with moderate doses of B vitamins and/or antioxidants did not alter either ADMA or CRP concentrations in these middle-aged, apparently healthy men with mildly elevated homocysteine levels.

Relationships between Dietary Patterns and Indices of Arterial Stiffness and Central Arterial Wave Reflection in 9-11-Year-Old Children.

Arterial stiffness is an important marker of vascular damage and a strong predictor of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Given that pathophysiological processes leading to an increased arterial stiffness begin during childhood, the aim of this clustered observational study was to determine the relationship between modifiable factors including dietary patterns and indices of aortic arterial stiffness and wave reflection in 9-11-year-old children. Data collection was conducted between April and December 2015 in 17 primary schools in Dunedin, New Zealand. Dietary data were collected using a previously validated food frequency questionnaire and identified using principal component analysis method. Arterial stiffness (carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, PWV) and central arterial wave reflection (augmentation index, AIx) were measured using the SphygmoCor XCEL system (Atcor Medical, Sydney, Australia). Complete data for PWV and AIx analyses were available for 389 and 337 children, respectively. The mean age of children was 9.7 ± 0.7 years, 49.0% were girls and 76.0% were classified as "normal weight". The two identified dietary patterns were "Snacks" and "Fruit and Vegetables". Mean PWV and AIx were 5.8 ± 0.8 m/s and -2.1 ± 14.1%, respectively. There were no clinically meaningful relationships between the identified dietary pattern scores and either PWV or AIx in 9-11-year-old children.