Organoid Modeling of the Tumor Immune Microenvironment.

In vitro cancer cultures, including three-dimensional organoids, typically contain exclusively neoplastic epithelium but require artificial reconstitution to recapitulate the tumor microenvironment (TME). The co-culture of primary tumor epithelia with endogenous, syngeneic tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) as a cohesive unit has been particularly elusive. Here, an air-liquid interface (ALI) method propagated patient-derived organoids (PDOs) from >100 human biopsies or mouse tumors in syngeneic immunocompetent hosts as tumor epithelia with native embedded immune cells (T, B, NK, macrophages). Robust droplet-based, single-cell simultaneous determination of gene expression and immune repertoire indicated that PDO TILs accurately preserved the original tumor T cell receptor (TCR) spectrum. Crucially, human and murine PDOs successfully modeled immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) with anti-PD-1- and/or anti-PD-L1 expanding and activating tumor antigen-specific TILs and eliciting tumor cytotoxicity. Organoid-based propagation of primary tumor epithelium en bloc with endogenous immune stroma should enable immuno-oncology investigations within the TME and facilitate personalized immunotherapy testing.

Engineered matrices reveal stiffness-mediated chemoresistance in patient-derived pancreatic cancer organoids.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by its fibrotic and stiff extracellular matrix. However, how the altered cell/extracellular-matrix signalling contributes to the PDAC tumour phenotype has been difficult to dissect. Here we design and engineer matrices that recapitulate the key hallmarks of the PDAC tumour extracellular matrix to address this knowledge gap. We show that patient-derived PDAC organoids from three patients develop resistance to several clinically relevant chemotherapies when cultured within high-stiffness matrices mechanically matched to in vivo tumours. Using genetic barcoding, we find that while matrix-specific clonal selection occurs, cellular heterogeneity is not the main driver of chemoresistance. Instead, matrix-induced chemoresistance occurs within a stiff environment due to the increased expression of drug efflux transporters mediated by CD44 receptor interactions with hyaluronan. Moreover, PDAC chemoresistance is reversible following transfer from high- to low-stiffness matrices, suggesting that targeting the fibrotic extracellular matrix may sensitize chemoresistant tumours. Overall, our findings support the potential of engineered matrices and patient-derived organoids for elucidating extracellular matrix contributions to human disease pathophysiology.

Ketogenic and anaplerotic dietary modifications ameliorate seizure activity in Drosophila models of mitochondrial encephalomyopathy and glycolytic enzymopathy.

Seizures are a feature not only of the many forms of epilepsy, but also of global metabolic diseases such as mitochondrial encephalomyopathy (ME) and glycolytic enzymopathy (GE). Modern anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) are successful in many cases, but some patients are refractory to existing AEDs, which has led to a surge in interest in clinically managed dietary therapy such as the ketogenic diet (KD). This high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet causes a cellular switch from glycolysis to fatty acid oxidation and ketone body generation, with a wide array of downstream effects at the genetic, protein, and metabolite level that may mediate seizure protection. We have recently shown that a Drosophila model of human ME (ATP61) responds robustly to the KD; here, we have investigated the mechanistic importance of the major metabolic consequences of the KD in the context of this bioenergetics disease: ketogenesis, reduction of glycolysis, and anaplerosis. We have found that reduction of glycolysis does not confer seizure protection, but that dietary supplementation with ketone bodies or the anaplerotic lipid triheptanoin, which directly replenishes the citric acid cycle, can mimic the success of the ketogenic diet even in the presence of standard carbohydrate levels. We have also shown that the proper functioning of the citric acid cycle is crucial to the success of the KD in the context of ME. Furthermore, our data reveal that multiple seizure models, in addition to ATP61, are treatable with the ketogenic diet. Importantly, one of these mutants is TPIsugarkill, which models human glycolytic enzymopathy, an incurable metabolic disorder with severe neurological consequences. Overall, these studies reveal widespread success of the KD in Drosophila, further cementing its status as an excellent model for studies of KD treatment and mechanism, and reveal key insights into the therapeutic potential of dietary therapy against neuronal hyperexcitability in epilepsy and metabolic disease.

MicroRNA-383 acts as a tumor suppressor in colorectal cancer by modulating CREPT/RPRD1B expression.

CREPT (Cell-cycle-related and expression-elevated protein in tumor)/RPRD1B, a novel protein that enhances the transcription of Cyclin D1 to promote cell proliferation during tumorigenesis, was demonstrated highly expressed in most of tumors. However, it remains unclear how CREPT is regulated in colorectal cancers. In this study, we report that miR-383 negatively regulates CREPT expression. We observed that CREPT was up-regulated but the expression of miR-383 was down regulated in both colon cancer cell lines and colon tumor tissues. Intriguingly, we found that enforced expression of miR-383 inhibited the expression of CREPT at both the mRNA and protein level. Using a luciferase reporter, we showed that miR-383 targeted the 3'-UTR of CREPT mRNA directly. Consistently we observed that over expression of miR-383 shortened the half-life of CREPT mRNA in varieties of colorectal cancer cells. Furthermore, restoration of miR-383 inhibited cell growth and colony formation of colon cancer cells accompanied by inhibition of expression of CREPT and related downstream genes. Finally, we demonstrated that stable over expression of miR-383 in colon cancer cells decreased the growth of the tumors. Our results revealed that the abundant expression of CREPT in colorectal cancers is attributed to the decreased level of miR-383. This study shed a new light on the potential therapeutic therapy strategy for colorectal cancers using introduced miRNA.

Natural product derivative Gossypolone inhibits Musashi family of RNA-binding proteins.

BACKGROUND: The Musashi (MSI) family of RNA-binding proteins is best known for the role in post-transcriptional regulation of target mRNAs. Elevated MSI1 levels in a variety of human cancer are associated with up-regulation of Notch/Wnt signaling. MSI1 binds to and negatively regulates translation of Numb and APC (adenomatous polyposis coli), negative regulators of Notch and Wnt signaling respectively. METHODS: Previously, we have shown that the natural product (-)-gossypol as the first known small molecule inhibitor of MSI1 that down-regulates Notch/Wnt signaling and inhibits tumor xenograft growth in vivo. Using a fluorescence polarization (FP) competition assay, we identified gossypolone (Gn) with a > 20-fold increase in Ki value compared to (-)-gossypol. We validated Gn binding to MSI1 using surface plasmon resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance, and cellular thermal shift assay, and tested the effects of Gn on colon cancer cells and colon cancer DLD-1 xenografts in nude mice. RESULTS: In colon cancer cells, Gn reduced Notch/Wnt signaling and induced apoptosis. Compared to (-)-gossypol, the same concentration of Gn is less active in all the cell assays tested. To increase Gn bioavailability, we used PEGylated liposomes in our in vivo studies. Gn-lip via tail vein injection inhibited the growth of human colon cancer DLD-1 xenografts in nude mice, as compared to the untreated control (P < 0.01, n = 10). CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that PEGylation improved the bioavailability of Gn as well as achieved tumor-targeted delivery and controlled release of Gn, which enhanced its overall biocompatibility and drug efficacy in vivo. This provides proof of concept for the development of Gn-lip as a molecular therapy for colon cancer with MSI1/MSI2 overexpression.

Visualization of Annular Gap Junction Vesicle Processing: The Interplay Between Annular Gap Junctions and Mitochondria.

It is becoming clear that in addition to gap junctions playing a role in cell⁻cell communication, gap junction proteins (connexins) located in cytoplasmic compartments may have other important functions. Mitochondrial connexin 43 (Cx43) is increased after ischemic preconditioning and has been suggested to play a protective role in the heart. How Cx43 traffics to the mitochondria and the interactions of mitochondria with other Cx43-containing structures are unclear. In this study, immunocytochemical, super-resolution, and transmission electron microscopy were used to detect cytoplasmic Cx43-containing structures and to demonstrate their interactions with other cytoplasmic organelles. The most prominent cytoplasmic Cx43-containing structures-annular gap junctions-were demonstrated to form intimate associations with lysosomes as well as with mitochondria. Surprisingly, the frequency of associations between mitochondria and annular gap junctions was greater than that between lysosomes and annular gap junctions. The benefits of annular gap junction/mitochondrial associations are not known. However, it is tempting to suggest, among other possibilities, that the contact between annular gap junction vesicles and mitochondria facilitates Cx43 delivery to the mitochondria. Furthermore, it points to the need for investigating annular gap junctions as more than only vesicles destined for degradation.

Functional screening of amplification outlier oncogenes in organoid models of early tumorigenesis.

Somatic copy number gains are pervasive across cancer types, yet their roles in oncogenesis are insufficiently evaluated. This inadequacy is partly due to copy gains spanning large chromosomal regions, obscuring causal loci. Here, we employed organoid modeling to evaluate candidate oncogenic loci identified via integrative computational analysis of extreme copy gains overlapping with extreme expression dysregulation in The Cancer Genome Atlas. Subsets of "outlier" candidates were contextually screened as tissue-specific cDNA lentiviral libraries within cognate esophagus, oral cavity, colon, stomach, pancreas, and lung organoids bearing initial oncogenic mutations. Iterative analysis nominated the kinase DYRK2 at 12q15 as an amplified head and neck squamous carcinoma oncogene in p53-/- oral mucosal organoids. Similarly, FGF3, amplified at 11q13 in 41% of esophageal squamous carcinomas, promoted p53-/- esophageal organoid growth reversible by small molecule and soluble receptor antagonism of FGFRs. Our studies establish organoid-based contextual screening of candidate genomic drivers, enabling functional evaluation during early tumorigenesis.

CHK1 protects oncogenic KRAS-expressing cells from DNA damage and is a target for pancreatic cancer treatment.

We apply genetic screens to delineate modulators of KRAS mutant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) sensitivity to ERK inhibitor treatment, and we identify components of the ATR-CHK1 DNA damage repair (DDR) pathway. Pharmacologic inhibition of CHK1 alone causes apoptotic growth suppression of both PDAC cell lines and organoids, which correlates with loss of MYC expression. CHK1 inhibition also activates ERK and AMPK and increases autophagy, providing a mechanistic basis for increased efficacy of concurrent CHK1 and ERK inhibition and/or autophagy inhibition with chloroquine. To assess how CHK1 inhibition-induced ERK activation promotes PDAC survival, we perform a CRISPR-Cas9 loss-of-function screen targeting direct/indirect ERK substrates and identify RIF1. A key component of non-homologous end joining repair, RIF1 suppression sensitizes PDAC cells to CHK1 inhibition-mediated apoptotic growth suppression. Furthermore, ERK inhibition alone decreases RIF1 expression and phenocopies RIF1 depletion. We conclude that concurrent DDR suppression enhances the efficacy of ERK and/or autophagy inhibitors in KRAS mutant PDAC.

Evaluation of the Second Edition of Entering Research: A Customizable Curriculum for Apprentice-Style Undergraduate and Graduate Research Training Programs and Courses.

The second edition of Entering Research (ER) is a collection of customizable active-learning activities, resources, and assessment and evaluation tools for use in undergraduate and graduate research training programs and courses. Results from two design and development research studies examining the effectiveness of the second edition of the ER curriculum and a 2-day ER facilitator training workshop are reported. Pilot testing of the second edition of the curriculum at 20 sites across the country (42 unique implementations) with 78 facilitators and 565 undergraduate and graduate research trainees provides evidence that the ER activities are clear and complete and that they were effective in helping trainees gain knowledge or improve their ability to do research. Overall, research training program directors and trainees were satisfied with courses and workshops that incorporated activities from ER. Likewise, evaluation data from four ER facilitator training workshops showed that participants valued the workshop and reported significant gains in confidence in their ability to successfully develop and implement a custom ER curriculum. Together, these results provide evidence that the ER curriculum and training workshop warrant further efficacy, effectiveness, and scale-up research.

Identification and Validation of an Aspergillus nidulans Secondary Metabolite Derivative as an Inhibitor of the Musashi-RNA Interaction.

RNA-binding protein Musashi-1 (MSI1) is a key regulator of several stem cell populations. MSI1 is involved in tumor proliferation and maintenance, and it regulates target mRNAs at the translational level. The known mRNA targets of MSI1 include Numb, APC, and P21WAF-1, key regulators of Notch/Wnt signaling and cell cycle progression, respectively. In this study, we aim to identify small molecule inhibitors of MSI1-mRNA interactions, which could block the growth of cancer cells with high levels of MSI1. Using a fluorescence polarization (FP) assay, we screened small molecules from several chemical libraries for those that disrupt the binding of MSI1 to its consensus RNA. One cluster of hit compounds is the derivatives of secondary metabolites from Aspergillus nidulans. One of the top hits, Aza-9, from this cluster was further validated by surface plasmon resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which demonstrated that Aza-9 binds directly to MSI1, and the binding is at the RNA binding pocket. We also show that Aza-9 binds to Musashi-2 (MSI2) as well. To test whether Aza-9 has anti-cancer potential, we used liposomes to facilitate Aza-9 cellular uptake. Aza-9-liposome inhibits proliferation, induces apoptosis and autophagy, and down-regulates Notch and Wnt signaling in colon cancer cell lines. In conclusion, we identified a series of potential lead compounds for inhibiting MSI1/2 function, while establishing a framework for identifying small molecule inhibitors of RNA binding proteins using FP-based screening methodology.

Tumor suppressive microRNA-137 negatively regulates Musashi-1 and colorectal cancer progression.

Stem cell marker, Musashi-1 (MSI1) is over-expressed in many cancer types; however the molecular mechanisms involved in MSI1 over-expression are not well understood. We investigated the microRNA (miRNA) regulation of MSI1 and the implications this regulation plays in colorectal cancer. MicroRNA miR-137 was identified as a MSI1-targeting microRNA by immunoblotting and luciferase reporter assays. MSI1 protein was found to be highly expressed in 79% of primary rectal tumors (n=146), while miR-137 expression was decreased in 84% of the rectal tumor tissues (n=68) compared to paired normal mucosal samples. In addition to reduced MSI1 protein, exogenous expression of miR-137 inhibited cell growth, colony formation, and tumorsphere growth of colon cancer cells. Finally, in vivo studies demonstrated that induction of miR-137 can decrease growth of human colon cancer xenografts. Our results demonstrate that miR-137 acts as a tumor-suppressive miRNA in colorectal cancers and negatively regulates oncogenic MSI1.

Natural product (-)-gossypol inhibits colon cancer cell growth by targeting RNA-binding protein Musashi-1.

Musashi-1 (MSI1) is an RNA-binding protein that acts as a translation activator or repressor of target mRNAs. The best-characterized MSI1 target is Numb mRNA, whose encoded protein negatively regulates Notch signaling. Additional MSI1 targets include the mRNAs for the tumor suppressor protein APC that regulates Wnt signaling and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor P21(WAF-1). We hypothesized that increased expression of NUMB, P21 and APC, through inhibition of MSI1 RNA-binding activity might be an effective way to simultaneously downregulate Wnt and Notch signaling, thus blocking the growth of a broad range of cancer cells. We used a fluorescence polarization assay to screen for small molecules that disrupt the binding of MSI1 to its consensus RNA binding site. One of the top hits was (-)-gossypol (Ki = 476 ± 273 nM), a natural product from cottonseed, known to have potent anti-tumor activity and which has recently completed Phase IIb clinical trials for prostate cancer. Surface plasmon resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance studies demonstrate a direct interaction of (-)-gossypol with the RNA binding pocket of MSI1. We further showed that (-)-gossypol reduces Notch/Wnt signaling in several colon cancer cell lines having high levels of MSI1, with reduced SURVIVIN expression and increased apoptosis/autophagy. Finally, we showed that orally administered (-)-gossypol inhibits colon cancer growth in a mouse xenograft model. Our study identifies (-)-gossypol as a potential small molecule inhibitor of MSI1-RNA interaction, and suggests that inhibition of MSI1's RNA binding activity may be an effective anti-cancer strategy.

Beyond Punnett squares: Student word association and explanations of phenotypic variation through an integrative quantitative genetics unit investigating anthocyanin inheritance and expression in Brassica rapa Fast plants.

Genetics instruction in introductory biology is often confined to Mendelian genetics and avoids the complexities of variation in quantitative traits. Given the driving question "What determines variation in phenotype (Pv)? (Pv=Genotypic variation Gv + environmental variation Ev)," we developed a 4-wk unit for an inquiry-based laboratory course focused on the inheritance and expression of a quantitative trait in varying environments. We utilized Brassica rapa Fast Plants as a model organism to study variation in the phenotype anthocyanin pigment intensity. As an initial curriculum assessment, we used free word association to examine students' cognitive structures before and after the unit and explanations in students' final research posters with particular focus on variation (Pv = Gv + Ev). Comparison of pre- and postunit word frequency revealed a shift in words and a pattern of co-occurring concepts indicative of change in cognitive structure, with particular focus on "variation" as a proposed threshold concept and primary goal for students' explanations. Given review of 53 posters, we found ∼50% of students capable of intermediate to high-level explanations combining both Gv and Ev influence on expression of anthocyanin intensity (Pv). While far from "plug and play," this conceptually rich, inquiry-based unit holds promise for effective integration of quantitative and Mendelian genetics.