Influences of pCO2 and bicarbonate concentration on bioelectric phenomena in ischemic hippocampal ex vivo tissue.

While the vasomotor effects of pCO(2) modulation are well documented, the influence of the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate system on the ischemia tolerance of brain tissue itself is controversial. Guinea-pig hippocampal tissue was subjected to ischemia simulation in an interface environment and examined electrophysiologically. Characteristics of anoxic depolarization as well as the postischemic recovery of evoked potentials were registered. During ischemia simulation, pH was changed and afterwards restored to 7.4. pH of 7.6 (n=6), and 7.8 (n=6) were adjusted by increasing bicarbonate concentration without changing pCO(2), while pH 8.2 was reached either with normal pCO(2) (n=8) or with zero CO(2) (n=9). pH 7.1 was created by doubling pCO(2) (n=22) or reducing bicarbonate (n=21), while acid pH of 6.9 (high pCO(2) and low bicarbonate) led to erratic measurements in the interface setup. Alkalotic conditions did not improve electrophysiological stability of the tissue, and pH 8.2 impeded the recovery of evoked potentials. Hypercarbic pH 7.1 led to significantly longer latency of depolarization while the same pH with lowered bicarbonate did not. Evoked potentials, however, recovered only partially after ischemia at hypercarbic pH 7.1. Once the tissue had recovered from anoxic depolarization at control pH, hypercarbic acidosis did not have any further protective effect when ischemia simulation was repeated (n=12). These results do not strengthen the concept of hyperventilation in intensive care, while they suggest a potential of hypercarbia within broader strategies delaying the onset of secondary brain damage.

Long-lasting desynchronization in rat hippocampal slice induced by coordinated reset stimulation.

In computational models it has been shown that appropriate stimulation protocols may reshape the connectivity pattern of neural or oscillator networks with synaptic plasticity in a way that the network learns or unlearns strong synchronization. The underlying mechanism is that a network is shifted from one attractor to another, so that long-lasting stimulation effects are caused which persist after the cessation of stimulation. Here we study long-lasting effects of multisite electrical stimulation in a rat hippocampal slice rendered epileptic by magnesium withdrawal. We show that desynchronizing coordinated reset stimulation causes a long-lasting desynchronization between hippocampal neuronal populations together with a widespread decrease in the amplitude of the epileptiform activity. In contrast, periodic stimulation induces a long-lasting increase in both synchronization and amplitude.

Hyperbaric oxygen in neurosurgery.

BACKGROUND: The therapeutic use of pure oxygen, even under hyperbaric conditions, has been well established for about 50 years, whereas the discovery of oxygen occurred 250 years earlier. Many neurosurgical patients suffer from brain tissue damage, due to reduced blood flow, obstructive vessel disease, or as a result of traumatic brain injury. METHODS AND RESULTS: The application of pure oxygen in these patients is the only method of increasing the O(2) concentration in tissue with impaired blood supply and can minimize secondary impairment of brain tissue. DISCUSSION: In this brief historical overview we focus on the development and evidence of hyperbaric oxygenation in this specific field of insufficient oxygen supply to the central neural tissue. CONCLUSION: With the use of modern biological methods and new study designs, HBO has a place in evidence-based treatment of patients with neural tissue damage.

Different regional neuroinhibitory effects of adenosine on stimulus-induced patterns of bioelectric activity of rat hippocampal and neocortical tissues.

Adenosine is an inhibitory modulator of brain activity with neuroprotective and anticonvulsant properties. To investigate the distribution of bioelectric activities under application of adenosine, rat hippocampal and neocortical slices were incubated with the voltage-sensitive dye RH795 and neuronal activity was monitored using a fast-imaging photodiode array combined with standard field potential recordings. The effects of adenosine (1-50 micromol/l) on the spatial distribution of stimulus-induced activities were studied in non-epileptiform as well as epileptiform conditions. Epileptiform activity was induced by omission of Mg(2+) from the bath medium. The adenosine's inhibitory effects on the amplitude and spatial extent of stimulus-induced bioelectric activity in the hippocampus were most prominent in strata radiatum and pyramidale in both control and epileptic mediums. Adenosine's inhibitory actions were different on various layers of neocortical tissues in non-epileptiform and epileptiform conditions. Layers II and III showed the most inhibition by application of adenosine in control slices. In epileptiform medium, however, adenosine exerts significant suppressive effects only in layer I of neocortical slices. The data demonstrate a region-specific modulatory potential of adenosine on neuronal network excitability in the hippocampus and neocortex. This may be important in local adenosine therapy in epilepsy.

Spreading depression enhances human neocortical excitability in vitro.

Cortical spreading depression (CSD) plays a role in migraine with aura. However, studies of the neuronal effects of CSD in human cortex are scarce. Therefore, in the present study, the effects of CSD on the field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSP) and the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) were investigated in human neocortical slices obtained during epilepsy surgery. CSD significantly enhanced the amplitude of fEPSP following a transient suppressive period and increased the induction of LTP in the third layer of neocortical tissues. These results indicate that CSD facilitates synaptic excitability and efficacy in human neocortical tissues, which can be assumed to contribute to hyperexcitability of neocortical tissues in patients suffering from migraine.

Effect of eugenol on spreading depression and epileptiform discharges in rat neocortical and hippocampal tissues.

Eugenol, an aromatic molecule derived from several plants, has been receiving examination for clinical relevance in epilepsy and headache. To investigate the neurophysiologic properties of the action of eugenol, its effects on epileptiform field potentials elicited by omission of extracellular Mg2+, spreading depression induced by KCl microinjection, electrically evoked field potentials, and long-term potentiation were tested in rat neocortical and hippocampal tissues. Eugenol (10-100 micromol/l) dose-dependently and reversibly suppressed both epileptiform field potentials and spreading depression Eugenol also reversibly decreased the amplitude of the field postsynaptic potentials evoked in CA1 area of hippocampus and the third layer of neocortex. Eugenol significantly reduced the long-term potentiation by approximately 30% compared with controls. Thus, eugenol can suppress epileptiform field potentials and spreading depression, likely via inhibition of synaptic plasticity. The results indicate the potential for eugenol to use in the treatment of epilepsy and cephalic pain.

Epilepsy surgery: perioperative investigations of intractable epilepsy.

Recent advances in our understanding of the basic mechanisms of epilepsy have derived, to a large extent, from increasing ability to carry out detailed studies on patients surgically treated for intractable epilepsy. Clinical and experimental perioperative studies divide into three different phases: before the surgical intervention (preoperative studies), on the intervention itself (intraoperative studies), and on the period when the part of the brain that has to be removed is available for further investigations (postoperative studies). Before surgery, both structural and functional neuroimaging techniques, in addition to their diagnostic roles, could be used to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms of seizure attacks in epileptic patients. During epilepsy surgery, it is possible to insert microdialysis catheters and electroencephalogram electrodes into the brain tissues in order to measure constituents of extracellular fluid and record the bioelectrical activity. Subsequent surgical resection provides tissue that can be used for electrophysiological, morphological, and molecular biological investigations. To take full advantage of these opportunities, carefully designed experimental protocols are necessary to compare the data from different phases and characterize abnormalities in the human epileptic brain.

Altered inhibition in the hippocampal neural networks after spreading depression.

Prolonged neuronal depression after spreading depression (SD) is followed by a late cellular and synaptic hyperexcitability. Intra- and extracellular recordings of bioelectrical activities were performed in the rodent hippocampus to investigate the role of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated inhibition in the late hyperexcitable state of SD. The effect of KCl-induced negative DC potential shifts was investigated on extracellularly recorded paired-pulse depression (PPD) and bicuculline-induced afterdischarges as well as intracellularly recorded inhibitory post synaptic potentials (IPSPs) in the hippocampal CA1 area. The results revealed that SD decreased the degree of PPD, enhanced the number and duration of bicuculline-induced afterdischarges, and reduced the amplitude and duration of IPSPs. Application of low concentrations of bicuculline before the induction of SD enhanced the inhibitory effect of SD on IPSPs. Data indicate the contribution of GABA-mediated inhibition to SD-induced delayed hyperexcitability. Modulation of GABA function in the late hyperexcitability phase of SD may play a role in therapeutic management of SD-related neurological disorders.

Cognitive impairments and neuronal injury in different brain regions of a genetic rat model of absence epilepsy.

Growing numbers of evidence indicate that cognitive impairments are part of clinical profile of childhood absence epilepsy. Little is known on neuropathological changes accompanied by cognitive deficits in absence epilepsy. The aim of the present study was to investigate age-dependent neuropathological changes accompanied by learning and memory impairments in Wistar Albino Glaxo from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) rat model of absence epilepsy. Experimental groups were divided into four groups of six rats of both WAG/Rij and Wistar strains with 2 and 6 months of age. The learning and memory performances were assessed using passive avoidance paradigm and neuropathological alterations were investigated by the evaluation of the number of dark neurons and apoptotic cells as well as the expression of caspase-3 in the neocortex, the hippocampus, and different regions of the thalamus. Results revealed a decline in learning and spatial memory of 6-month-old WAG/Rij rats compared to age-matched Wistar rats as well as 2-month-old WAG/Rij and Wistar rats. The mean number of dark neurons was significantly higher in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 areas as well as in the laterodorsal, centromedial, and reticular thalamic nuclei and the somatosensory cortex of 6-month-old WAG/Rij rats. In addition, a higher number of apoptotic cells as well as a higher expression of caspase-3 was observed in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions, the laterodorsal thalamic nucleus, and the somatosensory cortex of 6-month-old WAG/Rij rats compared to other animal groups. These results indicate significant enhancement of neuronal damage and cell death accompanied by memory deficits after seizure attacks in a rat model of absence epilepsy. Seizure-induced neuronal injury and death may underlie cognitive impairments in absence epilepsy.

Epileptogenesis: contributions of calcium ions and antiepileptic calcium antagonists.

The results demonstrate that organic calcium antagonists are able to reduce epileptic activity at the level of single neurons and of neuronal populations. This holds true also for human cortical tissue. Among other observations already published this justifies the hope that calcium antagonistic agents might be useful in the treatment of human epilepsies (28).

Expression and functional characterization of a melatonin-sensitive receptor in Xenopus oocytes.

Melatonin (MEL) plays a central role in the regulation of seasonal cycles and in the control of circadian rhythms in mammals. Functional MEL-sensitive receptors were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes following injection of poly (A)+ RNA from rat brain. Administration of 0.1-100 micromol/l MEL to voltage-clamped oocytes (holding potential: -70 mV) elicited oscillatory inward currents (reversal potential: -24 mV) which could be blocked by 9-anthracenecarboxylic acid and caffeine. After preincubation with pertussis toxin (PTX) the MEL response disappeared. The expressed MEL-sensitive receptor probably activates Ca(2+)-dependent chloride currents via a PTX-sensitive G protein and the phosphoinositol pathway.

Sensitivity of native and cloned hippocampal delayed-rectifier potassium channels to verapamil.

The effects of the phenylalkylamine verapamil on native and cloned hippocampal voltage-operated potassium channels were investigated. Native channels were studied in acutely isolated CA1 neurons from the guinea pig with the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Cloned channels were expressed in oocytes of Xenopus laevis and studied with the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. Native potassium channels: Verapamil suppressed the potassium currents in micro- and submicromolar concentrations. The current suppression increased during the voltage step. The IC50 value of verapamil was 3 micromol/l and the Hill coefficient was 0.5 indicating a mixed population of potassium channels with distinct verapamil sensitivity. Cloned potassium channels: The hippocampal potassium channels Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.3, Kv2.1, Kv3.1 and Kv3.2 were affected by verapamil in micromolar concentrations. The effect increased with depolarization time, was voltage-dependent, reached 90% of the maximum within around 40 s after start of verapamil application, recovered slowly after wash-out and did not reach control values even after wash-out times of six minutes. The IC50 values differed markedly and were 35 micromol/l for the Kv1.1 channel, 98 micromol/l for the Kv1.2 channel, 12 micromol/l for the Kv1.3 channel, 226 micromol/l for the Kv2.1 channel, 6 micromol/l for the Kv3.1 channel and 11 micromol/l for the Kv3.2 channel.

Effects of valproate derivatives I. Antiepileptic efficacy of amides, structural analogs and esters.

Derivatives of the antiepileptic drug valproate (VPA, 2-propylpentanoic acid) have been synthesized and tested in order to improve the intracellular availability of VPA. The buccal ganglia of Helix pomatia were used as a test nervous system and antiepileptic efficacies were reconfirmed using rat cortex in vivo. Epileptiform activities consisted of typical paroxysmal depolarization shifts (PDS) which appeared in the identified neuron B3 with application of pentylenetetrazol. Epileptiform activities were found to be accelerated, unaffected or blocked. (i) The Amide-derivatives 2-propylpentanamide and N,N-dipropyl-2-propylpentanamide, and short chain ester derivatives 1-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-2,3-propandiol, 2,2-di(hydroxymethyl)-1-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-1,3-propanediol and 2,2-di(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-di-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-1,3-propanediol accelerated epileptiform activities. Membrane potential often shifted to a permanent depolarization which corresponded to the PDS-inactivation level. (ii) The structural analogs 1-cycloheptene-1-carboxylic acid and cyclooctanecarboxylic acid accelerated epileptiform activities only slightly or were without effects. (iii) The small VPA-ester, 2-propylpentanoic acid ethyl ester, decreased the epileptiform activities in a way that is comparable to the effects of VPA well known from previous studies. It thus could be thought as a VPA-pro-drug. (iv) The mannitol-esters 1-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-D-mannitol and 3,4;5,6-Di-O-isopropylidene-1-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-D-mannitol blocked the PDS in a way which is different from the known effects of VPA. These substances are interpreted not to exert their effects after being metabolized to VPA and thus they are thought to be new antiepileptic substances.

Flunarizine shows increased antiepileptic efficacy with elevated K+ levels in low magnesium induced epileptic activity (neocortical slices, guinea pig).

Organic calcium channel blockers have been demonstrated to abolish epileptic activity in various experimental models. Furthermore, it was shown that the antiepileptic efficacy of the organic calcium channel blocker verapamil was significantly augmented when the KCl concentration background was elevated to levels normally occurring during epileptic seizures. The aim of the present investigation was to test whether flunarizine, which in contrast to verapamil is able to penetrate the blood brain barrier, suppresses epileptic activity in neocortical slice preparations, and whether this effect would be enhanced by raising the KCl background concentration. Epileptic activity was induced in neocortical slices of guinea pigs by omission of Mg2+ from the superfusate. As a measure of epileptic activity, field potentials were recorded from layers III and V. They appeared within approx 30 min after omission of Mg2+ from the bath solutions. The frequency of occurrence in normal and elevated KCl concentration was 47 +/- 10/5 min and 46 +/- 9/5 min, respectively. Flunarizine, in concentrations of 3.2 and 18 mumol/l, abolished epileptiform activity dose dependently. A 90% depression occurred within 194 +/- 27 and 376 +/- 27 min for flunarizine concentrations of 18 and 3.2 mumol/l, respectively. Elevating the KCl back-ground concentration to 8 mmol/l significantly enhanced the antiepileptic efficacy of flunarizine. Under these conditions, a 90% depression occurred within 67 +/- 14 and 165 +/- 37 min for flunarizine. Under these conditions, a 90% depression occurred within 67 +/- 14 and 165 +/- 37 min for flunarizine concentrations of 18 and 3.2 mumol/l, respectively. The experiments demonstrate that flunarizine suppresses epileptic activity in neocortical preparations, with enhanced action in elevated K+ levels.

Effects of valproate derivatives II. Antiepileptic efficacy in relation to chemical structures of valproate sugar esters.

The structure effect relationships of derivatives of the antiepileptically active ester of valproate (VPA) 3,4:5,6-Di-O-isopropylidene-1-O-(2-propylpentanoyl)-D-mannitol (1) have been studied using intracellular recording to record the membrane potential of single neurons (buccal ganglia, Helix pomatia). Epileptiform activity was induced by the epileptogenic drug pentylenetetrazol. The effects of several derivatives on epileptiform activity were compared with those of the relay compound 1. Most of the synthesized agents decreased the duration of paroxysmal depolarization shifts (PDS) and increased their repetition rate. It was considered that a decreased the duration of PDS is antiepileptic and an increased repetition rate is pro-epileptic. Compared with the effects of compound 1, the following relationships were found: (1) Derivatives containing glucitol or galactitol were of similar antiepileptic potency. (2) Introduction of pyranoses or furanoses rendered the substances inactive or even pro-epileptic. (3) VPA in position 1 and 6 at the sugar acted as an antiepileptic whereas in position 3 and 4 it proved to be ineffective. (4) Replacement of VPA by ethylhexanoyl reduced the antiepileptic potency slightly and pivaloyl strongly. (5) Replacement of isopropylidene bridges by penta-O-acetyl or cyclohexylidene residues led to largely inactive substances. (6) Compounds having isopropylidene bridges in position 2,4;3,5 proved to be antiepileptic whereas bridges especially in positions 2,3:4,5 slightly enhanced epileptic activities.

Effect of phenytoin on sodium and calcium currents in hippocampal CA1 neurons of phenytoin-resistant kindled rats.

About 20-30% of patients with epilepsy continue to have seizures despite carefully monitored treatment with antiepileptic drugs. The mechanisms explaining why some patients' respond and others prove resistant to antiepileptic drugs are poorly understood. It has been proposed that pharmacoresistance is related to reduced sensitivity of sodium channels in hippocampal neurons to antiepileptic drugs such as carbamazepine or phenytoin. In line with this proposal, a reduced effect of carbamazepine on sodium currents in hippocampal CA1 neurons was found in the rat kindling model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), i.e. a form of epilepsy with the poorest prognosis of all epilepsy types in adult patients. To address directly the possibility that neuronal sodium currents in the hippocampus play a crucial role in the pharmacoresistance of TLE, we selected amygdala-kindled rats with respect to their in vivo anticonvulsant response to phenytoin into responders and nonresponders and then compared phenytoin's effect on voltage-activated sodium currents in CA1 neurons. Furthermore, in view of the potential role of calcium current modulation in the anticonvulsant action of phenytoin, the effect of phenytoin on high-voltage-activated calcium currents was studied in CA1 neurons. Electrode-implanted but not kindled rats were used as sham controls for comparison with the kindled rats. In all experiments, the interval between last kindled seizure and ion channel measurements was at least 5 weeks. In kindled rats with in vivo resistance to the anticonvulsant effect of phenytoin (phenytoin nonresponders), in vitro modulation of sodium and calcium currents by phenytoin in hippocampal CA1 neurons did not significantly differ from respective data obtained in phenytoin responders, i.e. phenytoin resistance was not associated with a changed modulation of the sodium or calcium currents by this drug. Compared to sham controls, phenytoin's inhibitory effect on sodium currents was significantly reduced by kindling without difference between the responder and nonresponder subgroups. Further studies in phenytoin-resistant kindled rats may help to elucidate the mechanisms that can explain therapy resistance.

Epileptogenic effect of cyclosporine in guinea-pig hippocampal slices.

Cyclosporine A (CsA) neurotoxicity is a common cause of seizures in transplant patients and others receiving immunosuppressive therapy. CsA at concentrations higher than the levels estimated for cerebrospinal fluid of the patients suffering from seizure attacks was ineffective to induce epileptiform field potentials (EFP) in in vitro brain-slice preparation. The aim of this study was to test the effect of CsA at lower concentrations on neuronal activity. Guinea-pig hippocampal slices were exposed to artificial cerebrospinal fluid containing CsA (0.1-2 microM). Furthermore, the effects of CsA (0.25-10 microM) were tested on EFP elicited by omission of Mg2+ from superfusate. Low concentrations of CsA (0.1-0.25 microM) induced EFP while higher doses (0.5-2 microM) failed to decrease the seizure threshold. CsA at concentrations of 0.25 and 1 microM had no significant effect on the low Mg2+-induced EFP. Higher CsA concentration (10 microM) strongly suppressed EFP. The results indicate that CsA at doses that are probably clinically relevant increases the neuronal excitability.

Contribution of L-type calcium channels to epileptiform activity in hippocampal and neocortical slices of guinea-pigs.

The aim of the present investigation was to compare the antiepileptic efficacy of the specific L-type calcium channel blocker nifedipine in hippocampal and neocortical slice preparations in the Mg2+-free model of epilepsy. The main findings were as follows. (1) In hippocampal slices, in general, nifedipine (20-80 micromol/l) exerted a suppressive effect both on repetition rate and on area under epileptiform field potentials. This effect was clearly dose dependent. In the majority of cases, this suppression was preceded by an increase, which was transient in nature. Only in the lowest concentration (20 micromol/l) used, in normal K+, instead of a depression, a persistent increase occurred. (2) In neocortical slices, in the majority of experiments, nifedipine (20-80 micromol/l) showed a depressive action only on the area under the epileptiform field potentials. The depressive effect of nifedipine on the area was dose dependent, although to a lesser extent than in the hippocampus. In nearly half of the slices this suppression was preceded by a transient increase. By contrast, the repetition rate of epileptiform field potentials increased transiently in about 20% of the slices followed by a decrease. In the remaining 80% of the slices the repetition rate increased persistently. (3) An elevation of the K+ concentration accentuated the depressive actions of nifedipine only in the hippocampus. In contrast to elevated K+, in both the hippocampus and the neocortex, epileptiform field potentials were not suppressed in all experiments in normal K+. (4) The reversibility of the depressive effects of nifedipine was differential in the two tissue types. In the hippocampus, after suppression of epileptiform field potentials they reappeared in the overwhelming majority of slices. In the neocortex, this was the case in only one experiment. These findings may indicate the existence of L-type calcium channels with a differential functional significance for epileptogenesis and/or the existence of different forms of L-type channels in hippocampal and neocortical tissue. As a whole, the differential effects of L-type calcium channel blockade in the hippocampus and neocortex point to differences in the network properties of the two tissue types.

Current-source-density profiles associated with sharp waves in human epileptic neocortical tissue.

In human neocortical slices obtained during epilepsy surgery, sharp waves have been described to appear spontaneously, the shape of which met all criteria of epileptiform field potentials. In the present investigation, the current sinks and sources underlying these potentials were analysed. The cortical tissue used in the present study was a small portion of the tissue blocks excised for treatment of pharmacoresistant focal epilepsy. The tissue came from the temporal (n = 26), frontal (n = 1) and parietal (n = 1) lobes. Slices of 500 microm thickness were cut in the frontal plane perpendicular to the pial surface. Field potentials were recorded using a linear array of eight wire electrodes (diameter: 33 microm) with interelectrode distances of 300 microm. To scan a slice for sharp field potentials, this array was placed perpendicular to the pial surface at the midsection of each preparation, and consecutively at the respective midsections of the resulting halves of the slice. Each of these locations was termed a recording line. Depending on the appearance of spontaneous potentials, recording lines and slices were classified as either spontaneous or non-spontaneous. With both spontaneous and zero Mg(2+)-induced interictal discharges, in spontaneous slices, current sinks were preferentially located in layers II and III. In non-spontaneous slices, current sinks associated with interictal potentials could be found throughout all cortical laminae. With zero Mg(2+)-induced ictal activity, in spontaneous slices, the initial sinks were preferentially located in cortical laminae II and IIIa, and were shifted to lower ones after additional application of bicuculline. In non-spontaneous slices, no ictal-type discharges could be induced with omission of Mg2+ from the superfusate. Only addition of bicuculline elicited ictal-type activity, and sinks associated with this were preferentially located in layers II and IIIa. The results suggest that the supragranular layers, especially layer II, change qualitatively in functional organization in slices showing spontaneous discharges. We think that this special feature represents the function of the upper layers and can be blocked by bicuculline. This interpretation is supported by the observation that ictal discharges normally started in the upper layers in spontaneous and non-spontaneous slices, except for spontaneous slices with bicuculline, where the zone initiating discharges was translocated to deeper layers.

Ionotropic glutamate and GABA receptors in human epileptic neocortical tissue: quantitative in vitro receptor autoradiography.

Since a disturbed balance between excitatory and inhibitory amino acid receptors is suggested to be an important condition for epileptogenic cortical activity, the present study has focused on the analysis of the densities of (+/-)-alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA), N-methyl-D-aspartate, kainate and GABA subtype A receptors in neocortical tissue surgically removed from patients with focal epilepsy. The mean densities (collapsed over cortical layers I-VI) and the laminar distribution patterns of [3H]AMPA, [3H]MK-801, [3H]kainate and [3H]muscimol binding to AMPA, N-methyl-D-aspartate, kainate and GABAA receptors were determined with quantitative receptor autoradiography in the neocortex of patients with focal epilepsy and controls. The tissue probes used in the present study were functionally characterized by parallel electrophysiological investigations. From that, the different probes could be subdivided into a spontaneously spiking and a non-spontaneously spiking group. The mean density of [3H]AMPA binding sites was significantly increased (+37%) in the group of epileptic brains (n = 10) compared with controls (n = 10), but the mean densities of [3H]MK-801, [3H]kainate and [3H]muscimol binding sites were not significantly altered (-8%, +/-0% and -7%, respectively). The relation between the densities of all four binding sites were simultaneously displayed as polar plots in each single brain ("receptor fingerprints"). The consistent up-regulation of [3H]AMPA binding sites in all epileptic brains was found to be associated with a down-regulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in four of the five non-spontaneously spiking cases, and an associated up-regulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor was seen in all spontaneously spiking cases. Finally, the laminar distribution of binding site densities was analysed, since the mean densities collapsed over all neocortical layers may obscure layer-specific alterations. Layer- and receptor- specific up- or down-regulations were found in epileptic tissue compared with controls. Moreover, the laminar distribution pattern of current sinks associated with epileptiform potentials in a spontaneously spiking cortical slice was found to be co-localized with local maxima of AMPA receptor densities. The present analysis of four ionotropic glutamate and GABA receptor subtypes demonstrates a consistent and significant up-regulation of [3H]AMPA binding sites in all cases of human focal epilepsy, which co-localizes with the occurrence of sinks in current-source-density analysis. The receptor fingerprint analysis suggests a subdivision of focal epilepsy into two subtypes on the basis of neurochemical/functional correlations: (i) a spontaneously spiking subtype with increased N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor density, and (ii) a non-spontaneously spiking subtype with decreased N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor density.