A developmental mechanism to regulate alternative polyadenylation in an adult stem cell lineage.

Alternative cleavage and polyadenylation (APA) often results in production of mRNA isoforms with either longer or shorter 3' UTRs from the same genetic locus, potentially impacting mRNA translation, localization, and stability. Developmentally regulated APA can thus make major contributions to cell type-specific gene expression programs as cells differentiate. During Drosophila spermatogenesis, ∼500 genes undergo APA when proliferating spermatogonia differentiate into spermatocytes, producing transcripts with shortened 3' UTRs, leading to profound stage-specific changes in the proteins expressed. The molecular mechanisms that specify usage of upstream polyadenylation sites in spermatocytes are thus key to understanding the changes in cell state. Here, we show that upregulation of PCF11 and Cbc, the two components of cleavage factor II (CFII), orchestrates APA during Drosophila spermatogenesis. Knockdown of PCF11 or cbc in spermatocytes caused dysregulation of APA, with many transcripts normally cleaved at a proximal site in spermatocytes now cleaved at their distal site, as in spermatogonia. Forced overexpression of CFII components in spermatogonia switched cleavage of some transcripts to the proximal site normally used in spermatocytes. Our findings reveal a developmental mechanism where changes in expression of specific cleavage factors can direct cell type-specific APA at selected genes.

Astrocyte-neuron lactate transport is required for long-term memory formation.

We report that, in the rat hippocampus, learning leads to a significant increase in extracellular lactate levels that derive from glycogen, an energy reserve selectively localized in astrocytes. Astrocytic glycogen breakdown and lactate release are essential for long-term but not short-term memory formation, and for the maintenance of long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic strength elicited in vivo. Disrupting the expression of the astrocytic lactate transporters monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) or MCT1 causes amnesia, which, like LTP impairment, is rescued by L-lactate but not equicaloric glucose. Disrupting the expression of the neuronal lactate transporter MCT2 also leads to amnesia that is unaffected by either L-lactate or glucose, suggesting that lactate import into neurons is necessary for long-term memory. Glycogenolysis and astrocytic lactate transporters are also critical for the induction of molecular changes required for memory formation, including the induction of phospho-CREB, Arc, and phospho-cofilin. We conclude that astrocyte-neuron lactate transport is required for long-term memory formation.

Conditioned overconsumption is dependent on reinforcer type in lean, but not obese, mice.

Associative learning can drive many different types of behaviors, including food consumption. Previous studies have shown that cues paired with food delivery while mice are hungry will lead to increased consumption in the presence of those cues at later times. We previously showed that overconsumption can be driven in male mice by contextual cues, using chow pellets. Here we extended our findings by examining other parameters that may influence the outcome of context-conditioned overconsumption training. We found that the task worked equally well in males and females, and that palatable substances such as high-fat diet and Ensure chocolate milkshake supported learning and induced overconsumption. Surprisingly, mice did not overconsume when sucrose was used as the reinforcer during training, suggesting that nutritional content is a critical factor. Interestingly, we also observed that diet-induced obese mice did not learn the task. Overall, we find that context-conditioned overconsumption can be studied in lean male and female mice, and with multiple reinforcer types.

Seafood-Associated Outbreak of ctx-Negative Vibrio mimicus Causing Cholera-Like Illness, Florida, USA.

Vibrio mimicus caused a seafood-associated outbreak in Florida, USA, in which 4 of 6 case-patients were hospitalized; 1 required intensive care for severe diarrhea. Strains were ctx-negative but carried genes for other virulence determinants (hemolysin, proteases, and types I-IV and VI secretion systems). Cholera toxin-negative bacterial strains can cause cholera-like disease.

Trends in Illness Severity, Hospitalization, and Mortality for Community-Onset Pneumonia at 118 US Veterans Affairs Medical Centers.

BACKGROUND: Deaths from pneumonia were decreasing globally prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, but it is unclear whether this was due to changes in patient populations, illness severity, diagnosis, hospitalization thresholds, or treatment. Using clinical data from the electronic health record among a national cohort of patients initially diagnosed with pneumonia, we examined temporal trends in severity of illness, hospitalization, and short- and long-term deaths. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort PARTICIPANTS: All patients >18 years presenting to emergency departments (EDs) at 118 VA Medical Centers between 1/1/2006 and 12/31/2016 with an initial clinical diagnosis of pneumonia and confirmed by chest imaging report. EXPOSURES: Year of encounter. MAIN MEASURES: Hospitalization and 30-day and 90-day mortality. Illness severity was defined as the probability of each outcome predicted by machine learning predictive models using age, sex, comorbidities, vital signs, and laboratory data from encounters during years 2006-2007, and similar models trained on encounters from years 2015 to 2016. We estimated the changes in hospitalizations and 30-day and 90-day mortality between the first and the last 2 years of the study period accounted for by illness severity using time covariate decompositions with model estimates. RESULTS: Among 196,899 encounters across the study period, hospitalization decreased from 71 to 63%, 30-day mortality 10 to 7%, 90-day mortality 16 to 12%, and 1-year mortality 29 to 24%. Comorbidity risk increased, but illness severity decreased. Decreases in illness severity accounted for 21-31% of the decrease in hospitalizations, and 45-47%, 32-24%, and 17-19% of the decrease in 30-day, 90-day, and 1-year mortality. Findings were similar among underrepresented patients and those with only hospital discharge diagnosis codes. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes for community-onset pneumonia have improved across the VA healthcare system after accounting for illness severity, despite an increase in cases and comorbidity burden.

Control of non-homeostatic feeding in sated mice using associative learning of contextual food cues.

Feeding is a complex motivated behavior controlled by a distributed neural network that processes sensory information to generate adaptive behavioral responses. Accordingly, studies using appetitive Pavlovian conditioning confirm that environmental cues that are associated with food availability can induce feeding even in satiated subjects. However, in mice, appetitive conditioning generally requires intensive training and thus can impede molecular studies that often require large numbers of animals. To address this, we developed and validated a simple and rapid context-induced feeding (Ctx-IF) task in which cues associated with food availability can later lead to increased food consumption in sated mice. We show that the associated increase in food consumption is driven by both positive and negative reinforcement and that spaced training is more effective than massed training. Ctx-IF can be completed in ~1 week and provides an opportunity to study the molecular mechanisms and circuitry underlying non-homeostatic eating. We have used this paradigm to map brain regions that are activated during Ctx-IF with cFos immunohistochemistry and found that the insular cortex, and other regions, are activated following exposure to cues denoting the availability of food. Finally, we show that inhibition of the insular cortex using GABA agonists impairs performance of the task. Our findings provide a novel assay in mice for defining the functional neuroanatomy of appetitive conditioning and identify specific brain regions that are activated during the development of learned behaviors that impact food consumption.

Molecular profiling of reticular gigantocellularis neurons indicates that eNOS modulates environmentally dependent levels of arousal.

Neurons of the medullary reticular nucleus gigantocellularis (NGC) and their targets have recently been a focus of research on mechanisms supporting generalized CNS arousal (GA) required for proper cognitive functions. Using the retro-TRAP method, we characterized transcripts enriched in NGC neurons which have projections to the thalamus. The unique expression and activation of the endothelial nitric oxide (eNOS) signaling pathway in these cells and their intimate connections with blood vessels indicate that these neurons exert direct neurovascular coupling. Production of nitric oxide (NO) within eNOS-positive NGC neurons increases after environmental perturbations, indicating a role for eNOS/NO in modulating environmentally appropriate levels of GA. Inhibition of NO production causes dysregulated behavioral arousal after exposure to environmental perturbation. Further, our findings suggest interpretations for associations between psychiatric disorders and mutations in the eNOS locus.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor II Targets the mTOR Pathway to Reverse Autism-Like Phenotypes in Mice.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability characterized by impairments in social interaction and repetitive behavior, and is also associated with cognitive deficits. There is no current treatment that can ameliorate most of the ASD symptomatology; thus, identifying novel therapies is urgently needed. We used male BTBR T+Itpr3tf /J (BTBR) mice, a model that reproduces most of the core behavioral phenotypes of ASD, to test the effects of systemic administration of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II), a polypeptide that crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts as a cognitive enhancer. We show that systemic IGF-II treatments reverse the typical defects in social interaction, cognitive/executive functions, and repetitive behaviors reflective of ASD-like phenotypes. In BTBR mice, IGF-II, via IGF-II receptor, but not via IGF-I receptor, reverses the abnormal levels of the AMPK-mTOR-S6K pathway and of active translation at synapses. Thus, IGF-II may represent a novel potential therapy for ASD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Currently, there is no effective treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a developmental disability affecting a high number of children. Using a mouse model that expresses most of the key core as well as associated behavioral deficits of ASD, that are, social, cognitive, and repetitive behaviors, we report that a systemic administration of the polypeptide insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) reverses all these deficits. The effects of IGF-II occur via IGF-II receptors, and not IGF-I receptors, and target both basal and learning-dependent molecular abnormalities found in several ASD mice models, including those of identified genetic mutations. We suggest that IGF-II represents a potential novel therapeutic target for ASD.

A critical role for IGF-II in memory consolidation and enhancement.

We report that, in the rat, administering insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II, also known as IGF2) significantly enhances memory retention and prevents forgetting. Inhibitory avoidance learning leads to an increase in hippocampal expression of IGF-II, which requires the transcription factor CCAAT enhancer binding protein ß and is essential for memory consolidation. Furthermore, injections of recombinant IGF-II into the hippocampus after either training or memory retrieval significantly enhance memory retention and prevent forgetting. To be effective, IGF-II needs to be administered within a sensitive period of memory consolidation. IGF-II-dependent memory enhancement requires IGF-II receptors, new protein synthesis, the function of activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein and glycogen-synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). Moreover, it correlates with a significant activation of synaptic GSK3ß and increased expression of GluR1 (also known as GRIA1) α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxasolepropionic acid receptor subunits. In hippocampal slices, IGF-II promotes IGF-II receptor-dependent, persistent long-term potentiation after weak synaptic stimulation. Thus, IGF-II may represent a novel target for cognitive enhancement therapies.

The effect of insulin and insulin-like growth factors on hippocampus- and amygdala-dependent long-term memory formation.

Recent work has reported that the insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) promotes memory enhancement. Furthermore, impaired insulin or IGF1 functions have been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments, hence implicating the insulin/IGF system as an important target for cognitive enhancement and/or the development of novel treatments against cognitive disorders. Here, we tested the effect of intracerebral injections of IGF1, IGF2, or insulin on memory consolidation and persistence in rats. We found that a bilateral injection of insulin into the dorsal hippocampus transiently enhances hippocampal-dependent memory and an injection of IGF1 has no effect. None of the three peptides injected into the amygdala affected memories critically engaging this region. Together with previous data on IGF2, these results indicate that IGF2 produces the most potent and persistent effect as a memory enhancer on hippocampal-dependent memories. We suggest that the memory-enhancing effects of insulin and IGF2 are likely mediated by distinct mechanisms.

A Developmental Mechanism to Regulate Alternative Polyadenylation in an Adult Stem Cell Lineage.

Alternative Cleavage and Polyadenylation (APA) often results in production of mRNA isoforms with either longer or shorter 3'UTRs from the same genetic locus, potentially impacting mRNA translation, localization and stability. Developmentally regulated APA can thus make major contributions to cell-type-specific gene expression programs as cells differentiate. During Drosophila spermatogenesis, approximately 500 genes undergo APA when proliferating spermatogonia differentiate into spermatocytes, producing transcripts with shortened 3' UTRs, leading to profound stage-specific changes in the proteins expressed. The molecular mechanisms that specify usage of upstream polyadenylation sites in spermatocytes are thus key to understanding the changes in cell state. Here, we show that upregulation of PCF11 and Cbc, the two components of Cleavage Factor II (CFII), orchestrates APA during Drosophila spermatogenesis. Knock down of PCF11 or cbc in spermatocytes caused dysregulation of APA, with many transcripts normally cleaved at a proximal site in spermatocytes now cleaved at their distal site, as in spermatogonia. Forced overexpression of CFII components in spermatogonia switched cleavage of some transcripts to the proximal site normally used in spermatocytes. Our findings reveal a developmental mechanism where changes in expression of specific cleavage factors can direct cell-type-specific APA at selected genes.

Conditioned overconsumption is dependent on reinforcer type in lean, but not obese, mice.

Associative learning can drive many different types of behaviors, including food consumption. Previous studies have shown that cues paired with food delivery while mice are hungry will lead increased consumption in the presence of those cues at later times. We previously showed that overconsumption can be driven in male mice by contextual cues, using chow pellets. Here we extended our findings by examining other parameters that may influence the outcome of context-conditioned overconsumption training. We found that the task worked equally well in males and females, and that palatable substances such as high-fat diet and Ensure chocolate milkshake supported learning and induced overconsumption. Surprisingly, mice did not overconsume when sucrose was used as the reinforcer during training, suggesting that nutritional content is a critical factor. Interestingly, we also observed that diet-induced obese mice did not learn the task. Overall, we find that context-conditioned overconsumption can be studied in lean males and female mice, and with multiple reinforcer types.

INGEsT: An Open-Source Behavioral Setup for Studying Self-motivated Ingestive Behavior and Learned Operant Behavior.

Ingestive behavior is driven by negative internal hunger and thirst states, as well as by positive expected rewards. Although the neural substrates underlying feeding and drinking behaviors have been widely investigated, they have primarily been studied in isolation, even though eating can also trigger thirst, and vice versa. Thus, it is still unclear how the brain encodes body states, recalls the memory of food and water reward outcomes, generates feeding/drinking motivation, and triggers ingestive behavior. Here, we developed an INstrument for Gauging Eating and Thirst (INGEsT), a custom-made behavioral chamber which allows for precise measurement of both feeding and drinking by combining a FED3 food dispenser, lickometers for dispensing liquid, a camera for behavioral tracking, LED light for optogenetics, and calcium imaging miniscope. In addition, in vivo calcium imaging, optogenetics, and video recordings are well synchronized with animal behaviors, e.g., nose pokes, pellet retrieval, and water licking, by using a Bpod microprocessor and timestamping behavioral and imaging data. The INGEsT behavioral chamber enables many types of experiments, including free feeding/drinking, operant behavior to obtain food or water, and food/water choice behavior. Here, we tracked activity of insular cortex and mPFC Htr3a neurons using miniscopes and demonstrate that these neurons encode many aspects of ingestive behavior during operant learning and food/water choice and that their activity can be tuned by internal state. Overall, we have built a platform, consisting of both hardware and software, to precisely monitor innate ingestive, and learned operant, behaviors and to investigate the neural correlates of self-motivated and learned feeding/drinking behaviors.

An RNA binding regulatory cascade controls the switch from proliferation to differentiation in the Drosophila male germ line stem cell lineage.

The switch from precursor cell proliferation to onset of differentiation in adult stem cell lineages must be carefully regulated to produce sufficient progeny to maintain and repair tissues, yet prevent overproliferation that may enable oncogenesis. In the Drosophila male germ cell lineage, spermatogonia produced by germ line stem cells undergo a limited number of transit amplifying mitotic divisions before switching to the spermatocyte program that sets up meiosis and eventual spermatid differentiation. The number of transit amplifying divisions is set by accumulation of the bag-of-marbles (Bam) protein to a critical threshold. In bam mutants, spermatogonia proliferate through several extra rounds of mitosis then die without becoming spermatocytes. Here we show that the key role of Bam for the mitosis to differentiation switch is repressing expression of Held Out Wings (how), homolog of mammalian Quaking. Knock down of how in germ cells was sufficient to allow spermatogonia mutant for bam or its partner benign gonial cell neoplasm (bgcn) to differentiate, while forced expression of nuclear-targeted How protein in spermatogonia wild-type for bam resulted in continued proliferation at the expense of differentiation. Our findings suggest that Bam targets how RNA for degradation by acting as an adapter to recruit the CCR4-NOT deadenylation complex via binding its subunit, Caf40. As How is itself an RNA binding protein with roles in RNA processing, our findings reveal that the switch from proliferation to meiosis and differentiation in the Drosophila male germ line adult stem cell lineage is regulated by a cascade of RNA-binding proteins.

Electronic surveillance criteria for non-ventilator-associated hospital-acquired pneumonia: Assessment of reliability and validity.

OBJECTIVE: Surveillance of non-ventilator-associated hospital-acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) is complicated by subjectivity and variability in diagnosing pneumonia. We compared a fully automatable surveillance definition using routine electronic health record data to manual determinations of NV-HAP according to surveillance criteria and clinical diagnoses. METHODS: We retrospectively applied an electronic surveillance definition for NV-HAP to all adults admitted to Veterans' Affairs (VA) hospitals from January 1, 2015, to November 30, 2020. We randomly selected 250 hospitalizations meeting NV-HAP surveillance criteria for independent review by 2 clinicians and calculated the percent of hospitalizations with (1) clinical deterioration, (2) CDC National Healthcare Safety Network (CDC-NHSN) criteria, (3) NV-HAP according to a reviewer, (4) NV-HAP according to a treating clinician, (5) pneumonia diagnosis in discharge summary; and (6) discharge diagnosis codes for HAP. We assessed interrater reliability by calculating simple agreement and the Cohen κ (kappa). RESULTS: Among 3.1 million hospitalizations, 14,023 met NV-HAP electronic surveillance criteria. Among reviewed cases, 98% had a confirmed clinical deterioration; 67% met CDC-NHSN criteria; 71% had NV-HAP according to a reviewer; 60% had NV-HAP according to a treating clinician; 49% had a discharge summary diagnosis of pneumonia; and 82% had NV-HAP according to any definition according to at least 1 reviewer. Only 8% had diagnosis codes for HAP. Interrater agreement was 75% (κ = 0.50) for CDC-NHSN criteria and 78% (κ = 0.55) for reviewer diagnosis of NV-HAP. CONCLUSIONS: Electronic NV-HAP surveillance criteria correlated moderately with existing manual surveillance criteria. Reviewer variability for all manual assessments was high. Electronic surveillance using clinical data may therefore allow for more consistent and efficient surveillance with similar accuracy compared to manual assessments or diagnosis codes.

Incidence and Outcomes of Non-Ventilator-Associated Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in 284 US Hospitals Using Electronic Surveillance Criteria.

Importance: Non-ventilator-associated hospital-acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) is a common and deadly hospital-acquired infection. However, inconsistent surveillance methods and unclear estimates of attributable mortality challenge prevention. Objective: To estimate the incidence, variability, outcomes, and population attributable mortality of NV-HAP. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study retrospectively applied clinical surveillance criteria for NV-HAP to electronic health record data from 284 US hospitals. Adult patients admitted to the Veterans Health Administration hospital from 2015 to 2020 and HCA Healthcare hospitals from 2018 to 2020 were included. The medical records of 250 patients who met the surveillance criteria were reviewed for accuracy. Exposures: NV-HAP, defined as sustained deterioration in oxygenation for 2 or more days in a patient who was not ventilated concurrent with abnormal temperature or white blood cell count, performance of chest imaging, and 3 or more days of new antibiotics. Main Outcomes and Measures: NV-HAP incidence, length-of-stay, and crude inpatient mortality. Attributable inpatient mortality by 60 days follow-up was estimated using inverse probability weighting, accounting for both baseline and time-varying confounding. Results: Among 6 022 185 hospitalizations (median [IQR] age, 66 [54-75] years; 1 829 475 [26.1%] female), there were 32 797 NV-HAP events (0.55 per 100 admissions [95% CI, 0.54-0.55] per 100 admissions and 0.96 per 1000 patient-days [95% CI, 0.95-0.97] per 1000 patient-days). Patients with NV-HAP had multiple comorbidities (median [IQR], 6 [4-7]), including congestive heart failure (9680 [29.5%]), neurologic conditions (8255 [25.2%]), chronic lung disease (6439 [19.6%]), and cancer (5,467 [16.7%]); 24 568 cases (74.9%) occurred outside intensive care units. Crude inpatient mortality was 22.4% (7361 of 32 797) for NV-HAP vs 1.9% (115 530 of 6 022 185) for all hospitalizations; 12 449 (8.0%) were discharged to hospice. Median [IQR] length-of-stay was 16 (11-26) days vs 4 (3-6) days. On medical record review, pneumonia was confirmed by reviewers or bedside clinicians in 202 of 250 patients (81%). It was estimated that NV-HAP accounted for 7.3% (95% CI, 7.1%-7.5%) of all hospital deaths (total hospital population inpatient death risk of 1.87% with NV-HAP events included vs 1.73% with NV-HAP events excluded; risk ratio, 0.927; 95% CI, 0.925-0.929). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, NV-HAP, which was defined using electronic surveillance criteria, was present in approximately 1 in 200 hospitalizations, of whom 1 in 5 died in the hospital. NV-HAP may account for up to 7% of all hospital deaths. These findings underscore the need to systematically monitor NV-HAP, define best practices for prevention, and track their impact.

Emergent dynamics of adult stem cell lineages from single nucleus and single cell RNA-Seq of Drosophila testes.

Proper differentiation of sperm from germline stem cells, essential for production of the next generation, requires dramatic changes in gene expression that drive remodeling of almost all cellular components, from chromatin to organelles to cell shape itself. Here, we provide a single nucleus and single cell RNA-seq resource covering all of spermatogenesis in Drosophila starting from in-depth analysis of adult testis single nucleus RNA-seq (snRNA-seq) data from the Fly Cell Atlas (FCA) study. With over 44,000 nuclei and 6000 cells analyzed, the data provide identification of rare cell types, mapping of intermediate steps in differentiation, and the potential to identify new factors impacting fertility or controlling differentiation of germline and supporting somatic cells. We justify assignment of key germline and somatic cell types using combinations of known markers, in situ hybridization, and analysis of extant protein traps. Comparison of single cell and single nucleus datasets proved particularly revealing of dynamic developmental transitions in germline differentiation. To complement the web-based portals for data analysis hosted by the FCA, we provide datasets compatible with commonly used software such as Seurat and Monocle. The foundation provided here will enable communities studying spermatogenesis to interrogate the datasets to identify candidate genes to test for function in vivo.

Higher-Order Inputs Involved in Appetite Control.

The understanding of the neural control of appetite sheds light on the pathogenesis of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and obesity. Both diseases are a result of maladaptive eating behaviors (overeating or undereating) and are associated with life-threatening health problems. The fine regulation of appetite involves genetic, physiological, and environmental factors, which are detected and integrated in the brain by specific neuronal populations. For centuries, the hypothalamus has been the center of attention in the scientific community as a key regulator of appetite. The hypothalamus receives and sends axonal projections to several other brain regions that are important for the integration of sensory and emotional information. These connections ensure that appropriate behavioral decisions are made depending on the individual's emotional state and environment. Thus, the mechanisms by which higher-order brain regions integrate exteroceptive information to coordinate feeding is of great importance. In this review, we will focus on the functional and anatomical projections connecting the hypothalamus to the limbic system and higher-order brain centers in the cortex. We will also address the mechanisms by which specific neuronal populations located in higher-order centers regulate appetite and how maladaptive eating behaviors might arise from altered connections among cortical and subcortical areas with the hypothalamus.

Observing and recording neurological dysfunction.

Despite research suggesting that the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) has limitations, its results are regarded as the gold standard in assessments of patient consciousness levels. This article discusses and evaluates the GCS, and reviews the literature on the advantages and limitations of the tool, and considers whether the Lowry Coma Record (Lowry 1999) should be used instead.

Top-down control of conditioned overconsumption is mediated by insular cortex Nos1 neurons.

Associative learning allows animals to adapt their behavior in response to environmental cues. For example, sensory cues associated with food availability can trigger overconsumption even in sated animals. However, the neural mechanisms mediating cue-driven non-homeostatic feeding are poorly understood. To study this, we recently developed a behavioral task in which contextual cues increase feeding even in sated mice. Here, we show that an insular cortex to central amygdala circuit is necessary for conditioned overconsumption, but not for homeostatic feeding. This projection is marked by a population of glutamatergic nitric oxide synthase-1 (Nos1)-expressing neurons, which are specifically active during feeding bouts. Finally, we show that activation of insular cortex Nos1 neurons suppresses satiety signals in the central amygdala. The data, thus, indicate that the insular cortex provides top-down control of homeostatic circuits to promote overconsumption in response to learned cues.