Gut Inflammation Markers, Diet, and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity in Finnish Children - A Nested Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Gut dysbiosis and increased intestinal permeability have been reported to precede type 1 diabetes-related autoimmunity. The role of gut inflammation in autoimmunity is not understood. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess whether gut inflammation markers are associated with risk of islet autoimmunity and whether diet is associated with gut inflammation markers. METHODS: A nested case-control sample of 75 case children with islet autoimmunity and 88 control children was acquired from the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention cohort. Diet was assessed with 3-d food records, and calprotectin and human ß-defensin-2 (HBD-2) were analyzed from stool samples at 6 and 12 mo of age. Conditional logistic regression analysis was used in a matched case-control setting to assess risk of autoimmunity. Analysis of variance, independent samples t test, and a general linear model were used in secondary analyses to test associations of background characteristics and dietary factors with inflammation markers. RESULTS: In unadjusted analyses, calprotectin was not associated with risk of islet autoimmunity, whereas HBD-2 in the middle (odds ratio [OR]: 3.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.03, 10.08) or highest tertile (OR: 3.02; 95% CI: 1.05, 8.69) in comparison to the lowest at 12 mo of age showed borderline association (P-trend = 0.063) with higher risk of islet autoimmunity. Excluding children with cow milk allergy in sensitivity analyses strengthened the association of HBD-2 with islet autoimmunity, whereas adjusting for dietary factors and maternal education weakened it. At age 12 mo, higher fat intake was associated with higher HBD-2 (ß: 0.219; 95% CI: 0.110, 0.328) and higher intake of dietary fiber (ß: -0.294; 95% CI: -0.510, -0.078), magnesium (ß: -0.036; 95% CI: -0.059, -0.014), and potassium (ß: -0.003; 95% CI: -0.005, -0.001) with lower HBD-2. CONCLUSIONS: Higher HBD-2 in infancy may be associated with higher risk of islet autoimmunity. Dietary factors play a role in gut inflammatory status.

Food Consumption and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity and Type 1 Diabetes in Children at Increased Genetic Susceptibility for Type 1 Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Prospective longitudinal evidence considering the entire childhood food consumption in relation to development of islet autoimmunity (IA or) type 1 diabetes is lacking. OBJECTIVES: We studied the associations of consumption of various foods and their combinations with IA and type 1 diabetes risk. METHODS: Children with genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes born in 1996-2004 were followed from birth up to 6 years of age in the prospective birth cohort Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study (n=5674). Exposure variables included 34 food groups covering the entire diet based on repeated 3-day food records at age 3 months to 6 years. Endpoints were islet cell antibodies (ICA) plus biochemical IA (n=247), multiple biochemical IA (n=206), and type 1 diabetes (n=94). We analyzed associations between longitudinally observed foods and the risk of IA/type 1 diabetes using a Bayesian approach to joint models in one-food and multi-food models adjusted for energy intake, sex, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genotype, and familial diabetes. RESULTS: The final multi-food model for ICA plus biochemical IA included oats [hazard ratio (HR) 1.09, 95% credible interval (CI) 1.04-1.14], banana (HR 1.07, 95% CI 1.03-1.11), and cruciferous vegetables (HR 0.83, 95% CI 0.73-0.94). The final model for multiple biochemical IA included, in addition to above-mentioned foods, fermented dairy (HR 1.42, 95% CI 1.12-1.78) and wheat (HR 1.10, 95% CI 1.03-1.18). The final multi-food model for type 1 diabetes included rye (HR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.50), oats (HR 1.15, 95% CI 1.03-1.26), fruits (HR 1.05, 95% CI 1.01-1.09), and berries (HR 0.67, 95% CI 0.50-0.93). CONCLUSIONS: Higher consumption of oats, gluten-containing cereals, and fruits was associated with increased and that of cruciferous vegetables with decreased risk of several type 1 diabetes related endpoints when considering all the foods in combination. Further etiological and mechanistic studies are warranted.

Longitudinal consumption of fruits and vegetables and risk of asthma by 5 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Fruit and vegetable consumption has been linked to a decreased risk of asthma, but prospective evidence on longitudinal consumption in childhood is scarce. We aimed to investigate the association between fruit and vegetable consumption in childhood and the risk of asthma by the age of 5 years, and to explore the role of processing of fruits and vegetables in the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Allergy Study. METHODS: Child's food consumption was assessed by 3-day food records completed at the age of 3 and 6 months, and 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years, and asthma and allergies by a validated modified version of the ISAAC questionnaire at the age of 5 years. Consumption of processed and unprocessed fruits and vegetables was calculated. Joint models with a current value association structure for longitudinal and time-to-event data were used for statistical analyses. RESULTS: Of the 3053 children, 184 (6%) developed asthma by the age of 5 years. The risk of asthma was not associated with the consumption of all fruits and vegetables together (HR 1.00, 95%CI 0.99-1.01 per consumption of 1 g/MJ, adjusted for energy and other covariates), or with most subgroups. Weak inverse associations were seen between all leafy vegetables and asthma (HR = 0.87, 0.77-0.99), and unprocessed vegetables and nonatopic asthma (HR = 0.90, 95% CI 0.81-0.98). CONCLUSION: Total consumption of fruits and vegetables in childhood was not associated with the development of asthma by the age of 5 years. Weak inverse associations found for vegetables need to be confirmed or rejected in future studies.

Intake and sources of dietary fibre and dietary fibre fractions in Finnish children.

The current definition of dietary fibre was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 2009, but implementation requires updating food composition databases with values based on appropriate analysis methods. Previous data on population intakes of dietary fibre fractions are sparse. We studied the intake and sources of total dietary fibre (TDF) and dietary fibre fractions insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), dietary fibre soluble in water but insoluble in 76 % aqueous ethanol (SDFP) and dietary fibre soluble in water and soluble in 76 % aqueous ethanol (SDFS) in Finnish children based on new CODEX-compliant values of the Finnish National Food Composition Database Fineli. Our sample included 5193 children at increased genetic risk of type 1 diabetes from the Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention birth cohort, born between 1996 and 2004. We assessed the intake and sources based on 3-day food records collected at the ages of 6 months, 1, 3 and 6 years. Both absolute and energy-adjusted intakes of TDF were associated with age, sex and breast-feeding status of the child. Children of older parents, parents with a higher level of education, non-smoking mothers and children with no older siblings had higher energy-adjusted TDF intake. IDF was the major dietary fibre fraction in non-breastfed children, followed by SDFP and SDFS. Cereal products, fruits and berries, potatoes and vegetables were major food sources of dietary fibre. Breast milk was a major source of dietary fibre in 6-month-olds due to its human milk oligosaccharide content and resulted in high SDFS intakes in breastfed children.

Dietary fatty acid intake in childhood and the risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes: the DIPP birth cohort study.

PURPOSE: The aim was to study the associations between dietary intake of fatty acids in childhood and the risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes (T1D). METHODS: The prospective Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Study included children with genetic susceptibility to T1D born between 1996 and 2004. Participants were followed up every 3 to 12 months up to 6 years for diet, islet autoantibodies, and T1D. Dietary intake of several fatty acids at the age of 3 months to 6 years was assessed 1-8 times per participant with a 3-day food record. Joint models adjusted for energy intake, sex, HLA genotype and familial diabetes were used to investigate the associations of longitudinal intake of fatty acids and the development of islet autoimmunity and T1D. RESULTS: During the 6-year follow-up, 247 (4.4%) children of 5626 developed islet autoimmunity and 94 (1.7%) children of 5674 developed T1D. Higher intake of monounsaturated fatty acids (HR 0.63; 95% CI 0.47, 0.82), arachidonic acid (0.69; 0.50, 0.94), total n-3 fatty acids (0.64; 0.48, 0.84), and long-chain n-3 fatty acids (0.14; 0.04, 0.43), was associated with a decreased risk of islet autoimmunity with and without energy adjustment. Higher intake of total fat (0.73; 0.53, 0.98), and saturated fatty acids (0.55; 0.33, 0.90) was associated with a decreased risk of T1D only when energy adjusted. CONCLUSION: Intake of several fatty acids was associated with a decreased risk of islet autoimmunity or T1D among high-risk children. Our findings support the idea that dietary factors, including n-3 fatty acids, may play a role in the disease process of T1D.

Maternal energy-adjusted fatty acid intake during pregnancy and the development of cows' milk allergy in the offspring.

Cows' milk allergy (CMA) is one of the earliest manifestations of allergic diseases. Early dietary factors, like maternal diet during pregnancy, may play a role in the development of allergic diseases in the offspring. We aimed to investigate the association between maternal intake of fatty acids during pregnancy and the risk of CMA in the offspring. Our study was conducted in a population-based cohort, the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention study. We collected the maternal dietary data by a validated FFQ. We obtained the information on CMA in the study participants (n 448) from registers and from the parents. Dietary data and information on CMA were available for 4921 children. We used logistic regression in the analyses, and fatty acid intakes were energy adjusted. The maternal intake of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, n-3 PUFA, n-6 PUFA, trans fatty acids, ratio of n-3 PUFA to n-6 PUFA or ratio of linoleic acid to α-linolenic acid was not associated with the risk of CMA in the offspring when adjusted for perinatal factors, background factors, parental history of asthma or allergic rhinitis and infant animal contacts. The intake of α-linolenic acid was associated with a decreased risk (OR 0·72; 95 % CI 0·56, 0·93) of CMA in the offspring of mothers without a history of allergic rhinitis or asthma. In conclusion, the maternal intake of fatty acids during pregnancy is not associated with the risk of CMA in the offspring.

Maternal antioxidant intake during pregnancy and the development of cows' milk allergy in the offspring.

Cows' milk allergy (CMA) is the most common food allergy in young children, and it is often the first manifestation of atopic diseases. Accordingly, very early environmental factors, such as maternal diet during pregnancy, may play a role in the development of CMA, but the evidence is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between maternal intake of antioxidant nutrients during pregnancy and the subsequent development of CMA in the offspring in a prospective, population-based birth cohort within the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study. Maternal dietary information during pregnancy was collected with a detailed, validated FFQ. The maternal dietary information and the information on putative confounding factors were available for 4403 children. Information on diagnosed CMA (n 448) was obtained from a medical registry and queried from the parents up to child's age of 3 years. The Finnish food composition database was used to calculate the average daily intake of nutrients. Logistic regression was applied for statistical analyses, and the nutrient intakes were adjusted for energy intake. OR are presented per 1 sd increment of the particular nutrient intake. Maternal total and dietary intake of ß-carotene was associated with an increased risk of CMA in the offspring when adjusted for the putative confounding factors (total OR 1·10, 95 % CI 1·02, 1·20; dietary OR 1·10; 95 % CI 1·01, 1·19). Using dietary supplements containing antioxidants in addition to a balanced diet may not confer any additional benefits.

Maternal Nitrate and Nitrite Intakes during Pregnancy and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity and Type 1 Diabetes: The DIPP Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: High dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite might increase the risk of type 1 diabetes. To our knowledge, no earlier prospective study has explored whether maternal dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite during pregnancy is associated with the risk of type 1 diabetes in the offspring. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to study association between maternal intake of nitrate and nitrite during pregnancy and the risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in the offspring. DESIGN: Children born between 1997 and 2004 at Oulu and Tampere University Hospitals in Finland and carrying increased human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-conferred risk for type 1 diabetes were followed in the Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) study from 3 mo of age. Islet autoantibodies were screened at 3- to 12-mo intervals from serum samples. Of 4879 children, 312 developed islet autoimmunity and 178 developed type 1 diabetes during a 15-y follow-up. Maternal intake of nitrate and nitrite during the eighth month of pregnancy was assessed after birth using a validated self-administered FFQ. Cox proportional hazards regression was used for the statistical analyses. RESULTS: Maternal intake of nitrate and nitrite during pregnancy was not associated with the child's risk of islet autoimmunity [nitrate: HR 0.99 (95% CI: 0.88, 1.11); nitrite: HR 1.03 (95% CI: 0.92, 1.15)] or type 1 diabetes [nitrate: HR 1.02 (95% CI: 0.88, 1.17); nitrite: HR 0.97 (95% CI: 0.83, 1.12)] when adjusted for energy (residual method), sex, HLA risk group, and family history of diabetes. Further adjustment for dietary antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium) did not change the results. CONCLUSION: Maternal dietary intake of nitrate or nitrite during pregnancy is not associated with the risk of islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes in the offspring genetically at risk for type 1 diabetes.

Early exposure to cats, dogs and farm animals and the risk of childhood asthma and allergy.

BACKGROUND: Synergistic role of exposure to cats, dogs, and farm animals during infancy on the risk of childhood asthma and allergy remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: To investigate independent and synergistic associations between exposure to indoor pets and farm animals during infancy and the risk of asthma and allergy by age 5. METHODS: We studied 3781 children participating in the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Nutrition Study. At age 5, a validated version of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire was administered to collect information on asthma and allergic disease, and exposure to indoor pets and farm animals during the first year of life. Allergen-specific IgE antibodies were analyzed from serum samples. Statistical analyses employed Cox proportional hazards and logistic regression. RESULTS: Having a dog in the house was inversely associated with the risk of asthma (HR 0.60; 95% CI, 0.38-0.96), allergic rhinitis (OR 0.72; 95% CI, 0.53-0.97), and atopic sensitization (OR 0.77; 95% CI, 0.63-0.96). Having a cat was associated with a decreased risk of atopic eczema (OR 0.68; 95% CI, 0.51-0.92). Farm animals were neither independently nor in synergy with indoor pets associated with the outcomes. CONCLUSION: Having a dog or cat in the house during the first year of life may protect against childhood asthma and allergy. We did not find a synergistic association between cat, dog, and farm animal exposure on the risk of childhood asthma and allergy. Future research should identify specific causative exposures conferred by indoor pets and whether they could be recommended for allergy prevention.

Consumption of differently processed milk products in infancy and early childhood and the risk of islet autoimmunity.

Several prospective studies have shown an association between cows' milk consumption and the risk of islet autoimmunity and/or type 1 diabetes. We wanted to study whether processing of milk plays a role. A population-based birth cohort of 6081 children with HLA-DQB1-conferred risk to type 1 diabetes was followed until the age of 15 years. We included 5545 children in the analyses. Food records were completed at the ages of 3 and 6 months and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 years, and diabetes-associated autoantibodies were measured at 3-12-month intervals. For milk products in the food composition database, we used conventional and processing-based classifications. We analysed the data using a joint model for longitudinal and time-to-event data. By the age of 6 years, islet autoimmunity developed in 246 children. Consumption of all cows' milk products together (energy-adjusted hazard ratio 1·06; 95 % CI 1·02, 1·11; P = 0·003), non-fermented milk products (1·06; 95 % CI 1·01, 1·10; P = 0·011) and fermented milk products (1·35; 95 % CI 1·10, 1·67; P = 0·005) was associated with an increased risk of islet autoimmunity. The early milk consumption was not associated with the risk beyond 6 years. We observed no clear differences based on milk homogenisation and heat treatment. Our results are consistent with the previous studies, which indicate that high milk consumption may cause islet autoimmunity in children at increased genetic risk. The study did not identify any specific type of milk processing that would clearly stand out as a sole risk factor apart from other milk products.

Infant Feeding in Relation to the Risk of Advanced Islet Autoimmunity and Type 1 Diabetes in Children With Increased Genetic Susceptibility: A Cohort Study.

Breastfeeding, age at introduction of foods, and food diversity in infancy were studied for associations with advanced islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes. During 1996--2004, a total of 5,915 newborns with human leukocyte antigen-conferred susceptibility to type 1 diabetes were enrolled in the prospective Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Nutrition Study. Children were assessed at intervals of 3-12 months for the appearance of 4 types of islet autoantibodies and type 1 diabetes up to the age of 15 years. Survival models indicated the 3 variables of interest were not associated with advanced islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes in the cohort. Early introduction of solid foods was associated with increased risk of advanced islet autoimmunity in children up to age 3 years (for <3 months vs. >4 months, hazard ratio = 2.33, 95% confidence interval: 1.39, 3.91; for 3-4 months vs. >4 months, hazard ratio = 2.18; 95% confidence interval: 1.38, 3.47) but not in longer follow-up (P for interaction = 0.046). Similar results were observed for age at introduction of roots, cereals, egg, and meat relative to risk of advanced islet autoimmunity. No consistent, long-term associations between infant feeding and advanced islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes were observed.

Fatty acid status in infancy is associated with the risk of type 1 diabetes-associated autoimmunity.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We investigated the association of early serum fatty acid composition with the risk of type 1 diabetes-associated autoimmunity. Our hypothesis was that fatty acid status during infancy is related to type 1 diabetes-associated autoimmunity and that long-chain n-3 fatty acids, in particular, are associated with decreased risk. METHODS: We performed a nested case-control analysis within the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study birth cohort, carrying HLA-conferred susceptibility to type 1 diabetes (n = 7782). Serum total fatty acid composition was analysed by gas chromatography in 240 infants with islet autoimmunity and 480 control infants at the age of 3 and 6 months. Islet autoimmunity was defined as repeated positivity for islet cell autoantibodies in combination with at least one of three selected autoantibodies. In addition, a subset of 43 infants with primary insulin autoimmunity (i.e. those with insulin autoantibodies as the first autoantibody with no concomitant other autoantibodies) and a control group (n = 86) were analysed. A third endpoint was primary GAD autoimmunity defined as GAD autoantibody appearing as the first antibody without other concomitant autoantibodies (22 infants with GAD autoimmunity; 42 infants in control group). Conditional logistic regression was applied, considering multiple comparisons by false discovery rate <0.05. RESULTS: Serum fatty acid composition differed between breastfed and non-breastfed infants, reflecting differences in the fatty acid composition of the milk. Fatty acids were associated with islet autoimmunity (higher serum pentadecanoic, palmitic, palmitoleic and docosahexaenoic acids decreased risk; higher arachidonic:docosahexaenoic and n-6:n-3 acid ratios increased risk). Furthermore, fatty acids were associated with primary insulin autoimmunity, these associations being stronger (higher palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic, arachidonic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids decreased risk; higher α-linoleic acid and arachidonic:docosahexaenoic and n-6:n-3 acid ratios increased risk). Moreover, the quantity of breast milk consumed per day was inversely associated with primary insulin autoimmunity, while the quantity of cow's milk consumed per day was directly associated. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Fatty acid status may play a role in the development of type 1 diabetes-associated autoimmunity. Fish-derived fatty acids may be protective, particularly during infancy. Furthermore, fatty acids consumed during breastfeeding may provide protection against type 1 diabetes-associated autoimmunity. Further studies are warranted to clarify the independent role of fatty acids in the development of type 1 diabetes.

Vitamin D intake during the first 4 years and onset of asthma by age 5: A nested case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Early-life vitamin D intake has been linked to asthma risk in childhood, but the role of longitudinal vitamin D exposure has not been previously evaluated. We investigated the association between vitamin D intake during the first 4 years of life and asthma risk by age 5. METHODS: Within a Finnish population-based birth cohort, 182 incident asthma cases were matched to 728 controls on sex, genetic risk for type 1 diabetes, delivery hospital, and time of birth. Vitamin D intake was assessed by age-specific 3 day food records. Parents completed a validated version of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire at 5 years. RESULTS: At 3 months, supplements were the main source of vitamin D intake; intake from foods increased from 3 months on, mainly from fortified milk products. Vitamin D intake at each specific age was associated with an increased risk of any asthma, atopic, and non-atopic asthma, but only intake at 1 and 2 years was statistically significantly associated with asthma. Longitudinal vitamin D intake was associated with an increased risk of asthma (OR 1.24; 95%CI 1.00-1.53). CONCLUSIONS: Increased vitamin D intake in childhood, particularly intake at 1 and 2 years of age, may increase risk of childhood asthma. This might reflect a true effect or residual confounding by lifestyle or environmental factors. Repeated assessment of vitamin D intake allowed evaluation of the longitudinal and age-dependent impact of vitamin D on the risk of asthma. Further longitudinal studies are required to confirm or question these findings.

Maternal dietary folate, folic acid and vitamin D intakes during pregnancy and lactation and the risk of cows' milk allergy in the offspring.

Maternal nutrient intake during pregnancy and lactation potentially influences the development of allergic diseases. Cows' milk allergy (CMA) is often the first manifestation of atopic diseases, but the impact of early nutritional influences on CMA has not been explored. The associations between maternal intakes of folate, folic acid and vitamin D during pregnancy and lactation were addressed in a prospective, population-based birth cohort within the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study. Mothers of 4921 children during pregnancy and 2940 children during lactation provided information on maternal dietary intake during the 8th month of pregnancy and the 3rd month of lactation using a detailed, validated FFQ. Information on diagnosed CMA in the offspring was obtained from a medical registry as well as queried from the parents. The Finnish food composition database was used to calculate nutrient intake. Logistic regression was applied for statistical analyses. Folate intake and folic acid and vitamin D supplement use were associated with an increased risk of CMA in the offspring, whereas vitamin D intake from foods during pregnancy was associated with a decreased risk of CMA. Thus, maternal nutrient intake during pregnancy and lactation may affect the development of CMA in offspring. Supplementation with folic acid may not be beneficial in terms of CMA development, especially in children of allergic mothers. The association between dietary supplement use and CMA risk can at least partly be explained by increased health-seeking behaviour among more educated mothers who also use more dietary supplements.

Food consumption and risk of childhood asthma.

BACKGROUND: The consumption of foods rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids has been proposed to protect against childhood asthma. This study explores the association of food consumption (including cow's milk (CM)-free diet) in early life and the risk of atopic and non-atopic asthma. METHODS: Food intake of 182 children with asthma and 728 matched controls was measured using 3-day food records, within the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Nutrition Study cohort. The diagnoses of food allergies came both from the written questionnaire and from the registers of the Social Insurance Institution. Conditional logistic regression with generalized estimating equations framework was used in the analyses. RESULTS: The diagnosis of cow's milk allergy (CMA) led to multiple dietary restrictions still evident at 4 yr of age. Even after adjusting for CMA, higher consumption of CM products was inversely associated with the risk of atopic asthma and higher consumption of breast milk and oats inversely with the risk of non-atopic asthma. Early consumption of fish was associated with a decreased risk of all asthma. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary intake in early life combined with atopy history has a clear impact on the risk of developing asthma. Our results indicate that CM restriction due to CMA significantly increases and mediates the association between food consumption and childhood asthma risk.

Food diversity in infancy and the risk of childhood asthma and allergies.

BACKGROUND: Recently, the bacterial diversity of the intestinal flora and the diversity of various environmental factors during infancy have been linked to the development of allergies in childhood. Food is an important environmental exposure, but the role of food diversity in the development of asthma and allergies in childhood is poorly defined. OBJECTIVE: We studied the associations between food diversity during the first year of life and the development of asthma and allergies by age 5 years. METHODS: In a Finnish birth cohort we analyzed data on 3142 consecutively born children. We studied food diversity at 3, 4, 6, and 12 months of age. Asthma, wheeze, atopic eczema, and allergic rhinitis were measured by using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire at age 5 years. RESULTS: By 3 and 4 months of age, food diversity was not associated with any of the allergic end points. By 6 months of age, less food diversity was associated with increased risk of allergic rhinitis but not with the other end points. By 12 months of age, less food diversity was associated with increased risk of any asthma, atopic asthma, wheeze, and allergic rhinitis. CONCLUSION: Less food diversity during the first year of life might increase the risk of asthma and allergies in childhood. The mechanisms for this association are unclear, but increased dietary antigen exposure might contribute to this link.

Maternal dietary fatty acid intake during pregnancy and the risk of preclinical and clinical type 1 diabetes in the offspring.

The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between the maternal intake of fatty acids during pregnancy and the risk of preclinical and clinical type 1 diabetes in the offspring. The study included 4887 children with human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-conferred type 1 diabetes susceptibility born during the years 1997-2004 from the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study. Maternal diet was assessed with a validated FFQ. The offspring were observed at 3- to 12-month intervals for the appearance of type 1 diabetes-associated autoantibodies and development of clinical type 1 diabetes (average follow-up period: 4·6 years (range 0·5-11·5 years)). Altogether, 240 children developed preclinical type 1 diabetes and 112 children developed clinical type 1 diabetes. Piecewise linear log-hazard survival model and Cox proportional-hazards regression were used for statistical analyses. The maternal intake of palmitic acid (hazard ratio (HR) 0·82, 95 % CI 0·67, 0·99) and high consumption of cheese during pregnancy (highest quarter v. intermediate half HR 0·52, 95 % CI 0·31, 0·87) were associated with a decreased risk of clinical type 1 diabetes. The consumption of sour milk products (HR 1·14, 95 % CI 1·02, 1·28), intake of protein from sour milk (HR 1·15, 95 % CI 1·02, 1·29) and intake of fat from fresh milk (HR 1·43, 95 % CI 1·04, 1·96) were associated with an increased risk of preclinical type 1 diabetes, and the intake of low-fat margarines (HR 0·67, 95 % CI 0·49, 0·92) was associated with a decreased risk. No conclusive associations between maternal fatty acid intake or food consumption during pregnancy and the development of type 1 diabetes in the offspring were detected.

Timing of infant feeding in relation to childhood asthma and allergic diseases.

BACKGROUND: Emerging evidence questions current recommendations on the timing of infant feeding for the prevention of childhood allergies. The evidence for asthma is inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate the associations between the duration of breast-feeding and timing of introduction of complementary foods and the development of asthma and allergies by the age of 5 years. METHODS: Data were analyzed for 3781 consecutively born children. The dietary exposures were categorized into thirds and analyzed as time-dependent variables. Asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic eczema end points were assessed by using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire, whereas IgE antibodies were analyzed from serum samples at the age of 5 years. Cox proportional hazard and logistic regressions were used for the analyses. RESULTS: The median duration of exclusive and total breast-feeding was 1.4 months (interquartile range, 0.2-3.5 months) and 7.0 months (interquartile range, 4.0-11.0 months), respectively. Total breast-feeding of 9.5 months or less was associated with an increased risk of nonatopic asthma. Introduction of wheat, rye, oats, or barley at 5 to 5.5 months was inversely associated with asthma and allergic rhinitis, whereas introduction of other cereals at less than 4.5 months increased the risk of atopic eczema. Introduction of egg at 11 months or less was inversely associated with asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic sensitization, whereas introduction of fish at 9 months or less was inversely associated with allergic rhinitis and atopic sensitization. CONCLUSION: Early introduction of wheat, rye, oats, and barley cereals; fish; and egg (respective to the timing of introduction of each food) seems to decrease the risk of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic sensitization in childhood. Longer duration of total breast-feeding, rather than its exclusivity, was protective against the development of nonatopic but not atopic asthma, suggesting a potential differing effect of breast-feeding on different asthma phenotypes.

Maternal gluten, cereal, and dietary fiber intake during pregnancy and lactation and the risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in the child.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Maternal gluten intake in relation to child's risk of type 1 diabetes has been studied in few prospective studies considering the diet during pregnancy but none during lactation. Our aim was to study whether gluten, cereals, or dietary fiber in maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation is associated with the risk of islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes in the offspring. METHODS: We included 4943 children with genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes from the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Study, born between 1996 and 2004. Maternal intake of gluten, different types of cereals, and dietary fiber were derived from a semi-quantitative validated food frequency questionnaire covering the eighth month of pregnancy and the third month of lactation. Children were monitored for islet autoantibodies up to age of 15 years and type 1 diabetes until year 2017. Risk of islet autoimmunity and clinical type 1 diabetes were estimated using Cox regression model, adjusted for energy intake, child's sex, HLA genotype, and familial diabetes. RESULTS: Altogether 312 children (6.4%) developed islet autoimmunity at median age of 3.5 (IQR 1.7, 6.6) years and 178 children (3.6%) developed type 1 diabetes at median age of 7.1 (IQR 4.3, 10.6) years. Gluten intake during pregnancy was not associated with islet autoimmunity (HR 0.96; 95% CI 0.68, 1.35), per 1 g/MJ increase in intake nor type 1 diabetes (HR 0.96; 95% CI 0.62, 1.50) in the offspring. Higher barley consumption during lactation was associated with increased risk of type 1 diabetes (HR 3.25; 95% CI 1.21, 8.70) per 1 g/MJ increase in intake. Maternal intake of other cereals or dietary fiber was not associated with the offspring outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: We observed no association between maternal intake of gluten, most consumed cereals, or dietary fiber during pregnancy or lactation and the risk of islet autoimmunity or type 1 diabetes in children from a high-risk population.

Fruit, berry, and vegetable consumption and the risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in children-the Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention birth cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Prospective studies investigating the association among fruit, berry, and vegetable consumption and the risk of islet autoimmunity (IA) and type 1 diabetes (T1D) are few. OBJECTIVES: In this cohort study, we explored whether the consumption of fruits, berries, and vegetables is associated with the IA and T1D development in genetically susceptible children. METHODS: Food consumption data in the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) cohort study were available from 5674 children born between September 1996 and September 2004 in the Oulu and Tampere University Hospitals. Diet was assessed with 3-d food records at the age of 3 and 6 mo and annually from 1 to 6 y. The association between food consumption and the risk of IA and T1D was analyzed using joint models adjusted for energy intake, sex, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genotype, and a family history of diabetes. RESULTS: During the 6-y follow-up, 247 children (4.4%) developed IA and 94 (1.7%) T1D. Furthermore, 64 of 505 children with at least 1 repeatedly positive autoantibody (12.7%) progressed from islet autoantibody positivity to T1D. The consumption of cruciferous vegetables was associated with decreased risk of IA [hazard ratio (HR): 0.83; 95% credible intervals (CI): 0.72, 0.95, per 1 g/MJ increase in consumption] and the consumption of berries with decreased risk of T1D (0.60; 0.47, 0.89). The consumption of banana was associated with increased risk of IA (1.08; 1.04, 1.12) and T1D (1.11; 1.01, 1.21). Only the association between banana and IA remain significant after multiple testing correction. CONCLUSIONS: In children genetically at risk for T1D, the consumption of cruciferous vegetables was associated with decreased risk of IA and consumption of berries with decreased risk of T1D. In addition, the consumption of banana was associated with increased risk of IA and T1D.