Spastic paraplegia due to SPAST mutations is modified by the underlying mutation and sex.

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are rare neurological disorders caused by progressive distal degeneration of the corticospinal tracts. Among the 79 loci and 65 spastic paraplegia genes (SPGs) involved in HSPs, mutations in SPAST, which encodes spastin, responsible for SPG4, are the most frequent cause of both familial and sporadic HSP. SPG4 is characterized by a clinically pure phenotype associated with restricted involvement of the corticospinal tracts and posterior columns of the spinal cord. It is rarely associated with additional neurological signs. However, both age of onset and severity of the disorder are extremely variable. Such variability is both intra- and inter-familial and may suggest incomplete penetrance, with some patients carrying mutations remaining asymptomatic for their entire life. We analysed a cohort of 842 patients with SPG4-HSP to assess genotype-phenotype correlations. Most patients were French (89%) and had a family history of SPG4-HSP (75%). Age at onset was characterized by a bimodal distribution, with high inter-familial and intra-familial variability, especially concerning first-degree relatives. Penetrance of the disorder was 0.9, complete after 70 years of age. Penetrance was lower in females (0.88 versus 0.94 in males, P = 0.01), despite a more diffuse phenotype with more frequent upper limb involvement. Seventy-seven per cent of pathogenic mutations (missense, frameshift, splice site, nonsense, and deletions) were located in the AAA cassette of spastin, impairing its microtubule-severing activity. A comparison of the missense and truncating mutations revealed a significantly lower age at onset for patients carrying missense mutations than those carrying truncating mutations, explaining the bimodal distribution of the age at onset. The age at onset for patients carrying missense mutations was often before 10 years, sometimes associated with intellectual deficiency. Neuropathological examination of a single case showed degeneration of the spinocerebellar and spinocortical tracts, as well as the posterior columns. However, there were numerous small-diameter processes among unusually large myelinated fibres in the corticospinal tract, suggesting marked regeneration. In conclusion, this large cohort of 842 individuals allowed us to identify a significantly younger age at onset in missense mutation carriers and lower penetrance in females, despite a more severe disorder. Neuropathology in one case showed numerous small fibres suggesting regeneration.

Elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein in POLG-related epilepsy: Diagnostic and prognostic implications.

OBJECTIVE: Epilepsy is common in individuals with mutations in POLG, the gene encoding the catalytic subunit of the mitochondrial DNA polymerase gamma. Early recognition and aggressive seizure management are crucial for patient survival. Disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is implicated in various neurological disorders including epilepsy. The aim of this study was to assess whether POLG-related disease is associated with BBB dysfunction and what clinical implications this has for patients. METHODS: Our retrospective study used data from 83 patients with pathogenic POLG mutations from 4 countries--Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the United Kingdom. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire. We used the presence of raised cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) protein and a raised CSF/serum ratio of albumin (Q-alb) to evaluate the integrity of the blood-CSF barrier. RESULTS: Raised CSF protein was found in 70% of patients (n = 58/83) and appeared to be associated with the most severe phenotypes. In those in whom it was measured, the Q-alb ratio was markedly elevated (n = 18). The majority of those with epilepsy (n = 50/66, 76%) had raised CSF protein, and this preceded seizure debut in 75% (n = 15/20). The median survival time from symptom onset for those with raised CSF protein was decreased (13 months) compared to those with normal CSF protein (32 months). SIGNIFICANCE: Our results indicate that there is disruption of the BBB in POLG-related disease, as evidenced by a raised CSF protein and Q-alb ratio. We also find that raised CSF protein is a common finding in patients with POLG disease. Our data suggest that the presence of BBB dysfunction predicts a poorer outcome, and elevated CSF protein may therefore be an additional biomarker both for early diagnosis and to identify those at high risk of developing epilepsy.

The presence of anaemia negatively influences survival in patients with POLG disease.

BACKGROUND: Mitochondria play an important role in iron metabolism and haematopoietic cell homeostasis. Recent studies in mice showed that a mutation in the catalytic subunit of polymerase gamma (POLG) was associated with haematopoietic dysfunction including anaemia. The aim of this study was to analyse the frequency of anaemia in a large cohort of patients with POLG related disease. METHODS: We conducted a multi-national, retrospective study of 61 patients with confirmed, pathogenic biallelic POLG mutations from six centres, four in Norway and two in the United Kingdom. Clinical, laboratory and genetic data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Anaemia was defined as an abnormally low haemoglobin value adjusted for age and sex. Univariate survival analysis was performed using log-rank test to compare differences in survival time between categories. RESULTS: Anaemia occurred in 67% (41/61) of patients and in 23% (14/61) it was already present at clinical presentation. The frequency of anaemia in patients with early onset disease including Alpers syndrome and myocerebrohepatopathy spectrum (MCHS) was high (72%) and 35% (8/23) of these had anaemia at presentation. Survival analysis showed that the presence of anaemia was associated with a significantly worse survival (P = 0.004). CONCLUSION: Our study reveals that anaemia can be a feature of POLG-related disease. Further, we show that its presence is associated with significantly worse prognosis either because anaemia itself is impacting survival or because it reflects the presence of more serious disease. In either case, our data suggests anaemia is a marker for negative prognosis.

Geographical Distribution of Myasthenia Gravis in Northern Europe--Results from a Population-Based Study from Two Countries.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the prevalence of myasthenia gravis (MG) subgroups based on immunological markers and clinical presentation in two geographically complete MG populations in northern Europe. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included all living MG patients in Norway and a regional cohort from the Netherlands. Patients were identified using their hospital registration codes. Medical charts of subjects >16 years were reviewed. Inclusion criteria were clinical MG, a positive antibody test for acetylcholine receptor (AChR MG) or muscle-specific kinase (MuSK MG), or if seronegative MG, confirmed by an electrophysiological test. RESULTS: 1,205 MG patients (534 Norwegians and 671 Dutch) fulfilled the criteria, giving a higher point prevalence in the Netherlands (167/million, 95% CI 155-180) than in Norway (138/million, 95% CI 126-150). In particular, rates of AChR MG (143 vs. 111/million), MuSK MG (6.5 vs. 0.5/million), and ocular phenotype (62 vs. 24/million) were higher in the Netherlands. CONCLUSION: Novel findings are an AChR MG geographical north-south gradient and a 2.6-fold more ocular MG patients in the Netherlands than in Norway. The MuSK MG latitudinal gradient supports the notion of a north-south gradient in Europe, with a higher prevalence in the south. The variation is probably explained by genetic differences between the populations, in addition to environmental interactions.

Screening for X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy among adult men with Addison's disease.

OBJECTIVES: X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy is an important cause of Addison's disease in boys, but less is known about its contribution to Addison's disease in adult men. After surveying all known cases of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy in Norway in a separate study, we aimed to look for any missed cases among the population of adult men with nonautoimmune Addison's disease. STUDY DESIGN: Among 153 adult men identified in a National Registry for Addison's Disease (75% of identified male cases of Addison's disease in Norway), those with negative indices for 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies were selected. Additionally, cases with low autoantibody indices (48-200) were selected. Sera from subjects included were analysed for levels of very long-chain fatty acids, which are diagnostic for X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy in men. RESULTS: Eighteen subjects had negative indices and 17 had low indices for 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies. None of those with low indices and only one of those with negative indices were found to have X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy; this subject had already been diagnosed because of the neurological symptoms. Cases of Addison's disease proved to be caused by X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy constitute 1·5% of all adult male cases in Norway; the proportion among nonautoimmune cases was 15%. CONCLUSIONS: We found X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy to be an uncommon cause of Addison's disease in adult men. However, this aetiological diagnosis has far-reaching consequences both for the patient and for his extended family. We therefore recommend that all adult men with nonautoimmune Addison's disease be analysed for levels of very long-chain fatty acids.

Cognition is only minimally impaired in Spinocerebellar ataxia type 14 (SCA14): a neuropsychological study of ten Norwegian subjects compared to intrafamilial controls and population norm.

BACKGROUND: There is an increasing awareness of the role of the cerebellum not only in motor, but also in cognitive and emotional functions. Spinocerebellar ataxia type 14 (SCA14) is an autosomal dominant hereditary ataxia characterized by a relatively pure cerebellar phenotype. Cognitive impairment has been reported in studies with phenotype descriptions of SCA14, but previous studies have been small without control groups, and no homogeneous and systematic test panel has been used. The objective of this study was to thoroughly characterize the neuropsychological profile in ten Norwegian SCA14 subjects compared to unaffected family members and population norm data. METHODS: Ten SCA14 subjects and ten intrafamilial unaffected age- and education-matched controls from two Norwegian families were included. The unaffected intrafamilial controls included six first degree relatives, two second degree relatives, and two spouses. General intellectual ability, memory, visuoperceptive skills, psychomotor speed, executive functions, depression and anxiety were examined using internationally standardized tests, with minimal need for manual response to avoid motor bias. RESULTS: No significant cognitive deficit was found in SCA14 subjects compared to intrafamilial controls. Verbal IQ, verbal executive function and psychomotor speed tended to be reduced in affected subjects, but previously reported non-verbal executive dysfunction was not confirmed in this study. CONCLUSION: Only subtle cognitive impairment was found in SCA14 affected subjects. The current findings do not confirm earlier reports of cognitive dysfunction in SCA14, but does shows a mild impairment in specific verbal executive functions. Genotypic differences may partly account for this discrepancy, and further studies on larger materials are needed to verify the findings.

Autosomal dominant hereditary ataxia in Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA) are a group of hereditary neurodegenerative disorders. Prevalence of SCA subtypes differ worldwide. Autosomal dominant ataxias are the commonest types of inherited ataxias seen in Sri Lanka. The aim of the study is to determine the genetic etiology of patients with autosomal dominant ataxia in Sri Lanka and to describe the clinical features of each genetic subtype. METHODS: Thirty four patients with autosomal dominant ataxia were recruited. For every patient the following was done: recording of clinical details and genotyping for SCA 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 12, and 17. RESULTS: Sixty one per cent of the subjects were identified as SCA1. One subject had SCA2, 12 remain unidentified. Mean age at onset was 34.8 ± 10years for SCA1 and 32.7 ± 9.8 for non SCA1. 76% of SCA1 patients and 50% of non SCA1 were using walking aids. Quantification of symptoms and signs were similar in the SCA1 and non SCA1 groups. Clinical depression was evidenced in 68.4% of SCA1 and 75% non SCA-1 patients. Mean CAG repeat length in SCA1 patients was 52.0 ± 3.8, with greater anticipation seen with paternal inheritance. CONCLUSION: SCA1 was the predominant subtype and showed similar phenotype to previous reports. However, disease severity was higher and depression more prevalent in this population than previously described.

Prevalence of hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia in southeast Norway: a population-based study.

A population-based, cross-sectional study was performed in southeast Norway, between January 2002 and February 2008, to identify subjects with hereditary ataxia and hereditary spastic paraplegia, and to estimate the prevalence of these disorders. Patients were recruited through colleagues, families, searches in computerized hospital archives and the National Patients' Association for Hereditary Ataxia and Spastic Paraplegia. Strict criteria were used for inclusion of familial and isolated subjects. A project neurologist examined all index subjects and clinical and genetic data were registered. The source population on January 1, 2008 was 2.63 million and the prevalence day was set as February 1, 2008. One hundred seventy-one subjects from 87 unrelated families with hereditary ataxia and 194 subjects from 65 unrelated families with hereditary spastic paraplegia were included. The total prevalence was estimated at 13.9/100 000. Hereditary ataxia prevalence in the region was estimated at 6.5/100 000: 4.2/100 000 for autosomal-dominant and 2.3/100 000 for autosomal recessive, 0.15/100 000 for Friedreich's ataxia and 0.4/100 000 for ataxia telangiectasia. Hereditary spastic paraplegia prevalence was 7.4/100 000: 5.5/100 000 for autosomal dominant-hereditary spastic paraplegia, 0.6/100 000 for autosomal recessive-hereditary spastic paraplegia and 1.3/100 000 for isolated subjects. Marked differences were found in the frequencies of hereditary ataxia subtypes compared with other countries, while those of the most common autosomal dominant-hereditary spastic paraplegia genotypes, SPG4, SPG3 and SPG31, were similar to those previously reported. Clear variations between age groups and counties were observed, but no gender differences. Mean age on prevalence day was 48 years, mean age at onset was 24 years. We present the largest population study performed on hereditary ataxia and hereditary spastic paraplegia prevalence and report a higher prevalence than expected. Better inclusion criteria and multiple search strategies may explain the observed differences.

Elevated hydroxycholesterols in Norwegian patients with hereditary spastic paraplegia SPG5.

Spastic paraplegia type 5 (SPG5/HSP-CYP7B1) is an autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) caused by biallelic variants in the CYP7B1 gene, resulting in dysfunction of the enzyme oxysterol-7-α-hydroxylase. The consequent accumulation of hydroxycholesterols in plasma seems to be pathognomonic for SPG5, and represent a possible target for treatment. We aimed to characterize Norwegian patients with SPG5, including clinical examinations, genetic analyses, measurements of hydroxycholesterols, electrophysiological investigations and brain imaging. Five unrelated patients carried presumed disease-causing variants in CYP7B1, three of the variants were novel. Four patients presented with pure HSP, one with complex HSP. The three tested patients all had markedly increased levels of 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol in plasma. Our results suggest that the clinical examination is still the best approach to classify disease severity in patients with SPG5. Plasma hydroxycholesterols were elevated, thus presenting as potentially valuable diagnostic biomarkers, in particular in patients where genetic analyses are inconclusive.

The impact of gender, puberty, and pregnancy in patients with POLG disease.

OBJECTIVE: To study the impact of gender, puberty, and pregnancy on the expression of POLG disease, one of the most common mitochondrial diseases known. METHODS: Clinical, laboratory, and genetic data were collected retrospectively from 155 patients with genetically confirmed POLG disease recruited from seven European countries. We used the available data to study the impact of gender, puberty, and pregnancy on disease onset and deterioration. RESULTS: We found that disease onset early in life was common in both sexes but there was also a second peak in females around the time of puberty. Further, pregnancy had a negative impact with 10 of 14 women (71%) experiencing disease onset or deterioration during pregnancy. INTERPRETATION: Gender clearly influences the expression of POLG disease. While onset very early in life was common in both males and females, puberty in females appeared associated both with disease onset and increased disease activity. Further, both disease onset and deterioration, including seizure aggravation and status epilepticus, appeared to be associated with pregnancy. Thus, whereas disease activity appears maximal early in life with no subsequent peaks in males, both menarche and pregnancy appear associated with disease onset or worsening in females. This suggests that hormonal changes may be a modulating factor.

Fever-related ataxia: a case report of CAPOS syndrome.

BACKGROUND: CAPOS (Cerebellar ataxia, Areflexia, Pes cavus, Optic atrophy and Sensorineural hearing loss) syndrome is caused by the heterozygous mutation, c.2452G > A, in the ATP1A3 gene. Other mutations in this gene can cause a spectrum of overlapping phenotypes including alternating hemiplegia of childhood, rapid onset dystonia parkinsonism, early infantile epileptic encephalopathy and fever induced paroxysmal weakness and encephalopathy. The phenotype is still mistaken for mitochondrial/metabolic disorders and follow up studies are scare. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a 20 year old Norwegian male with ataxia, sensorineural deafness and visual loss. Before the age of five he experienced three fever related episodes of acute neurological deterioration when he temporarily lost his acquired motor skills and developed persistent gait and limb ataxia. In childhood, he developed bilateral optic atrophy and bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. Motor skills improved and at age 20 the patient showed a mild ataxia, hearing loss and reduced vision. A c.2452G > A mutation in the ATP1A3 gene was identified and CAPOS syndrome was confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first Norwegian patient reported with CAPOS syndrome. Our patient had a de novo, previously identified ATP1A3 mutation. The combination of recurrent episodes of fever related ataxia, loss of motor skills in early childhood, and early onset hearing and vision loss is typical of CAPOS syndrome. Previous reports suggest a gradual progression of the disease after the initial episodes, while this patient showed a good outcome with improvement of motor skills from adolescence long after the last deterioration episode.

[Hereditary ataxias]. / Arvelige ataksier.

BACKGROUND: Hereditary ataxias constitute a heterogeneous group of rare neurodegenerative diseases with an increasingly unsteady gait as the most common symptom. The three main groups: hereditary, sporadic and acquired ataxias, are difficult to distinguish from one another clinically. This overview will focus mainly on hereditary ataxias. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The article is based on own research, clinical experience and literature retrieved from searches in the MedLine and Cochrane databases. RESULTS: Autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias constitute the largest group and includes spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA 1-29), dentatorubral-pallidolyisian atrophy (DRPLA) and episodic ataxias (EA 1-6). Diagnosis is based on family history, clinical findings and can be confirmed with molecular tests for 50-60% of cases. Autosomal recessive ataxias usually start in childhood and consist of a group of heterogenous conditions of which Friedreich's ataxia and ataxia teleangiectasia are the most frequent types. Several metabolic and mitochondrial diseases are included in the group, but are not covered by this review. Curative treatment is usually not available for these diseases, but use of appropriate symptomatic drugs and physiotherapy may contribute to substantial improvement of the patient's symptoms and prognosis. INTERPRETATION: These conditions are rare, the prevalence is about 6/100,000 and they represent a diagnostic challenge. There is much ongoing research in the field with new possibilities for diagnosis and treatment. (For that reason it is important to be able to identify relevant patients and inform them properly) It is therefore important to identify the patients and give them the relevant information.

Correction: Targeted high throughput sequencing in hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174667.].

Targeted high throughput sequencing in hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia.

Hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia are heterogeneous monogenic neurodegenerative disorders. To date, a large number of individuals with such disorders remain undiagnosed. Here, we have assessed molecular diagnosis by gene panel sequencing in 105 early and late-onset hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia probands, in whom extensive previous investigations had failed to identify the genetic cause of disease. Pathogenic and likely-pathogenic variants were identified in 20 probands (19%) and variants of uncertain significance in ten probands (10%). Together these accounted for 30 probands (29%) and involved 18 different genes. Among several interesting findings, dominantly inherited KIF1A variants, p.(Val8Met) and p.(Ile27Thr) segregated in two independent families, both presenting with a pure spastic paraplegia phenotype. Two homozygous missense variants, p.(Gly4230Ser) and p.(Leu4221Val) were found in SACS in one consanguineous family, presenting with spastic ataxia and isolated cerebellar atrophy. The average disease duration in probands with pathogenic and likely-pathogenic variants was 31 years, ranging from 4 to 51 years. In conclusion, this study confirmed and expanded the clinical phenotypes associated with known disease genes. The results demonstrate that gene panel sequencing and similar sequencing approaches can serve as efficient diagnostic tools for different heterogeneous disorders. Early use of such strategies may help to reduce both costs and time of the diagnostic process.

Mild phenotype in an adult male with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy - case report.

X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy may present with a deceptively mild phenotype, even in adult males. Tight collaboration between clinicians, geneticists, biochemists, and other specialists is increasingly required for clarification of diagnosis in cases with atypical presentation.

Increased risk for clinical onset of myasthenia gravis during the postpartum period.

OBJECTIVE: To study the risk of clinical onset of myasthenia gravis (MG) in pregnancy and during the first 6 months postpartum because an association between pregnancy or the postpartum period and the onset of autoimmune MG is widely assumed but not proven. METHODS: The design was a cross-sectional population-based cohort study of 2 MG cohorts (Norway and the Netherlands) with 1,038 healthy controls from Norway. Data were obtained on 246 women with MG (age at onset 15-45 years). Data on pregnancy, hormonal factors, and clinical symptoms were collected by a previously validated environmental MG questionnaire. Relative risk of MG onset before, during, and after pregnancy was calculated by multinomial logistic regression for Norwegian women reaching 45 years of age, adjusted for the observed distribution of person-years in the corresponding control group. RESULTS: Of the included women with MG, 13 (11.5%) of the Dutch and 24 (18.0%) of the Norwegian patients had their first myasthenia symptoms during the pregnancy or postpartum period. The postpartum period was confirmed to be significantly associated with the onset of symptoms of MG in Norwegian women with MG (relative risk 5.5, 95% confidence interval 2.6-11.6). The risk was highest after the first childbirth. CONCLUSIONS: Women have a high-risk period for the onset of clinical symptoms of MG in the postpartum period, in particular after the first childbirth. Future studies should aim at elucidating the role of the hormonal-immunological-genetic interaction in the pathogenesis of MG.

Standardized Assessment of Hereditary Ataxia Patients in Clinical Studies.

BACKGROUND: Hereditary ataxias are a heterogeneous group of degenerative diseases of the cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord. They may present with isolated ataxia or with additional symptoms going beyond cerebellar deficits. There are an increasing number of clinical studies with the goal to define the natural history of these disorders, develop biomarkers, and investigate therapeutic interventions. Especially, early and preclinical disease stages are currently of particular interest. METHODS AND RESULTS: Evidence-based, we review standards for sampling and storage of biomaterials, clinical and neuropsychological assessment, as well as neurophysiology and neuroimaging and recommendations for standardized assessment of ataxia patients in multicenter studies. CONCLUSIONS: DNA, RNA, serum, and, if possible, cerebrospinal fluid samples should be processed following established standards. Clinical assessment in ataxia studies must include use of a validated clinical ataxia scale. There are several validated clinical ataxia scales available. There are no instruments that were specifically designed for assessing neuropsychological and psychiatric symptoms in ataxia disorders. We provide a list of tests that may prove valuable. Quantitative performance tests have the potential to supplement clinical scales. They provide additional objective and quantitative information. Posturography and quantitative movement analysis-despite valid approaches-require standardization before implemented in multicenter studies. Standardization of neurophysiological tools, as required for multicenter interventional trials, is still lacking. Future multicenter neuroimaging studies in ataxias should implement quality assurance measures as defined by the ADNI or other consortia. MRI protocols should allow morphometric analyses.