Identification of androgen-selective androgen-response elements in the human aquaporin-5 and Rad9 genes.

The AR (androgen receptor) is known to influence the expression of its target genes by binding to different sets of AREs (androgen-response elements) in the DNA. One set consists of the classical steroid-response elements which are partial palindromic repeats of the 5'-TGTTCT-3' steroid-receptor monomer-binding element. The second set contains motifs that are AR-specific and that are proposed to be partial direct repeats of the same motif. On the basis of this assumption, we used an in silico approach to identify new androgen-selective AREs in the regulatory regions of known androgen-responsive genes. We have used an extension of the NUBIScan algorithm to screen a collection of 85 known human androgen-responsive genes compiled from literature and database searches. We report the evaluation of the most promising hits resulting from this computational search by in vitro DNA-binding assays using full-size ARs and GRs (glucocorticoid receptors) as well as their isolated DBDs (DNA-binding domains). We also describe the ability of some of these motifs to confer androgen-, but not glucocorticoid-, responsiveness to reporter-gene expression. The elements found in the aquaporin-5 and the Rad9 (radiation-sensitive 9) genes showed selective AR versus GR binding in band-shift assays and a strong activity and selectivity in functional assays, both as isolated elements and in their original contexts. Our data indicate the validity of the hypothesis that selective AREs are recognizable as direct 5'-TGTTCT-3' repeats, and extend the list of currently known selective elements.

Transfection with steroid-responsive reporter constructs shows glucocorticoid rather than androgen responsiveness in cultured Sertoli cells.

It remains unclear why it has proven so difficult to identify androgen target genes in cultured Sertoli cells. Given the lack of useful endogenous reporter genes, we studied the androgen and glucocorticoid responsiveness of these cells by transfection with three different steroid-responsive reporter constructs. The constructs were driven by the tyrosine aminotransferase steroid-responsive region (TAT-GRE4x-Luc), the mouse mammary tumor virus promoter (MMTV-Luc) and the Pem homeobox gene proximal promoter respectively (Pem-Luc). These constructs can be activated either by both the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the androgen receptor (AR) (TAT-GRE4x-Luc and MMTV-Luc) or selectively by the AR (Pem-Luc). Despite high transfection efficiency (30-40%) none of the constructs could be activated by treatment of the Sertoli cells with testosterone, 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone or synthetic androgens. Even pretreatment with follicle-stimulating hormone to raise AR levels (from 31 up to 82fmol/mg protein) did not result in androgen responsiveness. In contrast, treatment with dexamethasone markedly stimulated TAT-GRE4x-Luc and MMTV-Luc activity. GR levels reached a value of 172fmol/mg protein in the cultured cells and both AR and GR displayed homogeneous distribution by immunocytochemical evaluation. Androgen responsiveness was restored and glucocorticoid responsiveness was increased by cotransfection with AR or GR expression constructs. Under cotransfection conditions, 1nM of testosterone (a concentration that is some 100 times lower than that estimated to be present in the testis) was sufficient to stimulate the TAT-GRE4x-Luc maximally. Our data indicate that cultured Sertoli cells respond better to glucocorticoids than to androgens and that one of the factors limiting androgen responsiveness is the availability of AR. Other factors limiting the transactivation capacity of the (endogenous) AR, however, cannot be excluded.

Loss of androgen receptor binding to selective androgen response elements causes a reproductive phenotype in a knockin mouse model.

Androgens influence transcription of their target genes through the activation of the androgen receptor (AR) that subsequently interacts with specific DNA motifs in these genes. These DNA motifs, called androgen response elements (AREs), can be classified in two classes: the classical AREs, which are also recognized by the other steroid hormone receptors; and the AR-selective AREs, which display selectivity for the AR. For in vitro interaction with the selective AREs, the androgen receptor DNA-binding domain is dependent on specific residues in its second zinc-finger. To evaluate the physiological relevance of these selective elements, we generated a germ-line knockin mouse model, termed SPARKI (SPecificity-affecting AR KnockIn), in which the second zinc-finger of the AR was replaced with that of the glucocorticoid receptor, resulting in a chimeric protein that retains its ability to bind classical AREs but is unable to bind selective AREs. The reproductive organs of SPARKI males are smaller compared with wild-type animals, and they are also subfertile. Intriguingly, however, they do not display any anabolic phenotype. The expression of two testis-specific, androgen-responsive genes is differentially affected by the SPARKI mutation, which is correlated with the involvement of different types of response elements in their androgen responsiveness. In this report, we present the first in vivo evidence of the existence of two functionally different types of AREs and demonstrate that AR-regulated gene expression can be targeted based on this distinction.

Selective DNA recognition by the androgen receptor as a mechanism for hormone-specific regulation of gene expression.

The androgen receptor (AR) is a member of the highly conserved group of the class I steroid hormone receptors, a subgroup of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-induced transcription factors. All class I receptors influence the expression of their target genes by binding three-nucleotide spaced partial palindromic repeats of the core 5'-TGTTCT-3' motif. The implication that all class I receptors activate transcription by binding similar DNA motifs, poses the problem of how the in vivo steroid-specificity of transcriptional control is achieved. The AR, however, is able to interact with DNA motifs that are divergent from the classical hormone response elements. We will describe this AR-specific DNA interaction in the context of the general mechanisms that dictate the sequence-specificity of DNA-binding and dimerization of the nuclear receptors. The androgen receptor is the only steroid hormone receptor that is able to interact with response elements that are essentially arranged as a direct repeat of the 5'-TGTTCT-3' monomer binding element. We propose that the DNA-binding domain of the AR can interact with these androgen-specific response elements in a head-to-tail conformation, similar to many other nuclear hormone receptors. The fact that subtle differences in the sequence of response elements can dictate androgen-specific responses is a new and intriguing finding. It creates new possibilities in the research on hormone-selective action and provides a new angle in the search for selective ligands or co-factors that might influence androgen receptor action via either type of DNA motif.

Dual function of an amino-terminal amphipatic helix in androgen receptor-mediated transactivation through specific and nonspecific response elements.

Steroid receptors are transcription factors that, upon binding to their response elements, regulate the expression of several target genes via direct protein interactions with transcriptional coactivators. For the androgen receptor, additional interactions between the amino- and carboxyl-terminal regions have been reported. The first amino acids of the amino-terminal domain are necessary for this amino/carboxyl-terminal interaction. Deletion of a FQNLF core sequence in this region blunts the interaction, as does a G21E mutation. We investigated the effect of the aforementioned mutations in the context of the full size androgen receptor on a series of selective and nonselective androgen response elements. Strikingly, the FQNLF deletion strongly reduced the androgen receptor capacity to transactivate through nonselective motifs but did not affect its activity on selective elements. Although the G21E mutation strongly impairs the amino/carboxyl-terminal interaction, it does not significantly influence androgen receptor activity on either selective or nonselective elements. Surprisingly, this mutation leads to an increased binding of the amino-terminal domain to the glutamine-rich region of the steroid receptor coactivator-1 of the p160 family. Taken together, these data suggest that the amino-terminal amino acids of the androgen receptor play a key role in determining its transcriptional activity by modulating the interaction with the ligand-binding domain as well as interaction with p160 coactivators.

Implications of a polyglutamine tract in the function of the human androgen receptor.

The androgen receptor (AR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor and belongs to the nuclear receptor family. The AR gene contains a long polymorphic CAG repeat, coding for a polyglutamine tract. In the full size AR, the deletion of the polyglutamine tract results in an increase in the transactivation through canonical AREs. However, this effect is clearly dependent on the response elements, since it is not observed on selective elements. In our assays, a deletion of the repeat positively affected the interactions of the ligand-binding domain with the amino-terminal domain as well as the recruitment of the p160 coactivator SRC-1e to the amino-terminal domain of the AR. This is reflected by an enhanced coactivation of the AR by SRC-1e.

Functional interplay between two response elements with distinct binding characteristics dictates androgen specificity of the mouse sex-limited protein enhancer.

Many of the aspects involved in steroid-specific transcriptional regulation are still unsolved to date. We describe here the detailed characterization of the mouse sex-limited protein enhancer as a paradigm for androgen-specific control of gene expression. By deletion analysis, we delineate the minimal enhancer region displaying androgen sensitivity and specificity. We also show that each of the three hormone response elements (HRE), which constitute this minimal enhancer region, is essential but not sufficient for its functionality. When investigated as isolated elements, HRE1 is inactive and HRE3 is a potent androgen response element as well as GRE. Only the non-canonical HRE2 (5-TGGTCAgccAGTTCT-3') is capable of conferring an androgen-specific transcriptional response to a heterologous promoter. This finding is correlated with the fact that HRE2 is recognized in binding assays in vitro by the DNA-binding domain (DBD) of the androgen but not the glucocorticoid receptor, while HRE3 is recognized by both DBDs. Differential binding of the androgen receptor to HRE2 in the context of the enhancer was analyzed in more detail in footprinting assays in vitro. In transient transfection experiments using chimeric receptors, the inability of the glucocorticoid receptor to transactivate via the slp-ARU as well as the isolated slp-HRE2 was rescued by the replacement of its DNA-binding domain with that of the androgen receptor. Our data suggest that the functional interplay between the weak, but highly androgen-specific HRE2 and the adjacent strong, but non-selective HRE3 is the major determinant in the generation of androgen specificity of transcriptional response via the sex-limited protein enhancer.

Comparative analysis of the influence of the high-mobility group box 1 protein on DNA binding and transcriptional activation by the androgen, glucocorticoid, progesterone and mineralocorticoid receptors.

We performed a comparative analysis of the effect of high-mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) on DNA binding by the DNA-binding domains (DBDs) of the androgen, glucocorticoid, progesterone and mineralocorticoid receptors. The affinity of the DBDs of the different receptors for the tyrosine aminotransferase glucocorticoid response element, a classical high-affinity binding element, was augmented up to 7-fold by HMGB1. We found no major differences in the effects of HMGB1 on DNA binding between the different steroid hormone receptors. In transient transfection assays, however, HMGB1 significantly enhances the activity of the glucocorticoid and progesterone receptors but not the androgen or mineralocorticoid receptor. We also investigated the effect of HMGB1 on the binding of the androgen receptor DBD to a subclass of directly repeated response elements that is recognized exclusively by the androgen receptor and not by the glucocorticoid, progesterone or mineralocorticoid receptor. Surprisingly, a deletion of 26 amino acid residues from the C-terminal extension of the androgen receptor DBD does not influence DNA binding but destroys its sensitivity to HMGB1. Deletion of the corresponding fragment in the DBDs of the glucocorticoid, progesterone and mineralocorticoid receptor destroyed their DNA binding. This 26-residue fragment is therefore essential for the influence of HMGB1 on DNA recognition by all steroid hormone receptors that were tested. However, it is dispensable for DNA binding by the androgen receptor.

Characterization of the two coactivator-interacting surfaces of the androgen receptor and their relative role in transcriptional control.

The androgen receptor interacts with the p160 coactivators via two surfaces, one in the ligand binding domain and one in the amino-terminal domain. The ligand binding domain interacts with the nuclear receptor signature motifs, whereas the amino-terminal domain has a high affinity for a specific glutamine-rich region in the p160s. We here describe the implication of two conserved motifs in the latter interaction. The amino-terminal domain of the androgen receptor is a very strong activation domain constituent of Tau5, which is mainly active in the absence of the ligand binding domain, and Tau1, which is only active in the presence of the ligand binding domain. Both domains are, however, implicated in the recruitment of the p160s. Mutation analysis of the p160s has shown that the relative contribution of the two recruitment mechanisms via the signature motifs or via the glutamine-rich region depend on the nature of the enhancers tested. We propose, therefore, that the androgen receptor-coactivator complex has several alternative conformations, depending partially on the context of the enhancer.

DNA recognition by the androgen receptor: evidence for an alternative DNA-dependent dimerization, and an active role of sequences flanking the response element on transactivation.

The androgen receptor has a subset of target DNA sequences, which are not recognized by any other steroid receptors. The androgen selectivity of these sequences was proposed to be the consequence of the ability of the androgen receptor to dimerize on direct repeats of 5'-TGTTCT-3'-like sequences. This is in contrast with the classical non-selective elements consisting of inverted repeats of the 5'-TGTTCT-3' elements separated by three nucleotides and which are recognized by other steroid receptors in addition to the androgen receptor. We demonstrate that while the DNA-binding domain of the oestrogen receptor is unable to dimerize on direct repeats, dimeric binding can be rescued by replacing the second Zn finger and part of the hinge region by the corresponding fragment of the androgen receptor, but not the glucocorticoid receptor. In this study, we investigate the androgen receptor binding to all natural androgen-selective response elements described so far. We show that a 12-amino acid C-terminal extension of the DNA-binding domain is required for high-affinity binding of the androgen receptor to all these elements. For one androgen-specific low-affinity binding site, the flanking sequences do not contribute to the in vitro affinity of the androgen receptor DNA-binding domain. Surprisingly, however, they control the transcriptional activity of the androgen receptor in transient transfection experiments. In conclusion, we give evidence that the alternative DNA-dependent dimerization of the androgen receptor on direct repeats is a general mechanism for androgen specificity in which the second Zn finger and hinge region are involved. In addition, the sequences flanking an androgen-response element can control the activity of the androgen receptor.

Identification of an androgen response element in intron 8 of the sterol regulatory element-binding protein cleavage-activating protein gene allowing direct regulation by the androgen receptor.

Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) are transcription regulators that play a pivotal role in intracellular lipid homeostasis. They are synthesized as inactive precursor proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are retained by SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP), a sterol sensing protein that in turn is linked to a retention protein complex. Low intracellular sterol concentrations weaken the interaction of SCAP with its retention proteins and allow translocation of the SREBP.SCAP complex to the Golgi compartment where SREBP is proteolytically cleaved and activated. Previous studies on the mechanisms by which androgens provoke a coordinated activation of lipogenic pathways in prostate cancer cells have suggested an alternative pathway of activation in which androgens increase the expression of SCAP and favor translocation of the SREBP.SCAP complex to the Golgi apparatus by disturbing the balance between SCAP and its retention proteins. Here we show that the SCAP gene contains an androgen-responsive region located in intron 8. This region interacts directly with the androgen receptor and confers androgen responsiveness to promoter-reporter constructs transfected in LNCaP cells. It contains a noncanonical androgen response element GGAAGAaaaTGTACC that interacts not only with the androgen receptor but also with the glucocorticoid receptor and that also confers glucocorticoid responsiveness. The identification of a steroid response element in intron 8 of the SCAP gene further supports the contention that SCAP is a direct target for steroid hormone action.