Sites of behavioral and neurochemical action of ACTH-like peptides and neurohypophyseal hormones.

In order to localize the site of action of neuropeptides in relation to their effects on behavior and memory various approaches have been used. As a result of studies using rats bearing lesions in different areas of the limbic system as well as of studies in which neuropeptides were locally applied into various areas of the brain it appeared that the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, septum and some thalamic areas) plays an essential role in the effect of vasopressin and ACTH and their derivatives on behavior and memory. Neurochemical studies generally indicate that changes occur in catecholamine utilization in these various limbic regions upon administration of these neuropeptides. It can be concluded that the effects of vasopressin in the terminal regions of the coeruleo-telencephalic noradrenalin system correlate with its effects on consolidation of memory. It is likely that the effects of vasopressin on other transmitter systems (e.g. dopamine in the amygdala and serotonin in the hippocampus) correspond with the effect of this neuropeptide on retrieval processes. In addition, regional differences in biotransformation of the neurohypophyseal hormones suggest that different patterns of behaviorally active fragments of these peptides may be present locally in the brain.

Role of dopamine in the development of spontaneous hypertension.

To investigate the role of brain catecholamines in the development of spontaneous hypertension, rats were treated with different doses of the neurotoxins 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) or DSP-4 (N-[2-chloroethyl]-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine hydrochloride). Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) 6-OHDA attenuated the development of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and also lowered the systolic blood pressure (BP) in Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP). Norepinephrine was markedly and dose-dependently depleted in brain areas of all three substrains. Dopamine was affected also, although to a lesser extent. Pretreatment with the norepinephrine-uptake inhibitor desmethylimipramine (DMI) did not influence the effect of 6-OHDA on the development of hypertension in SHR. DMI largely antagonized the 6-OHDA-induced depletion of brain norepinephrine, while dopamine depletion was not affected. Specific depletion of brain norepinephrine by treatment with DSP-4 did not alter the rise in BP in SHR. These results suggest that the effect of 6-OHDA on the development of hypertension in SHR may not be mediated through destruction of brain norepinephrine neurons, but that interruption of brain dopaminergic mechanisms is a possibility in this respect.

Middle cerebral artery occlusion in Wistar and Fischer-344 rats: functional and morphological assessment of the model.

Cerebral infarction volume after occlusion of a short proximal segment of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) is reported to be different in Wistar compared to Fischer-344 (F344) rats, in both size and variability. Knowledge about the cause of these differences might enable us to explain and perhaps reduce the variation in infarct volume and create a reproducible model of focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. We investigated in Wistar and F344 rats both the effect of occlusion of a long proximal MCA segment on cerebral infarction volume, visualized by magnetic resonance imaging and histology, and the morphology of the major cerebral arteries. Occlusion of a long proximal MCA segment resulted in a striatal and a small cortical infarction in Wistar and a striatal and sizable cortical infarction in F344 rats (as is the case after occlusion of a short proximal MCA segment). In Wistar rats, however, occlusion of a long proximal MCA segment strongly reduced the variability in infarction volume in comparison to occlusion of a small proximal MCA segment. Analysis of the morphology of the major cerebral arteries showed a significantly higher number of proximal side branches of the long proximal MCA segment in Wistar rates than in F344 rats. We conclude that after short-segment proximal MCA occlusion, extreme variability in cerebral infarction volume in Wistar rats compared to F344 rats may be attributable to a significantly greater number of proximal MCA side branches in Wistar rats than in F344 rats.

Oxytocin affects utilization of noradrenaline in distinct limbic-forebrain regions of the rat brain.

The effects of oxytocin, administered intracerebroventricularly in doses of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 pmol, were studied on the disappearance of catecholamines induced by alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine in microdissected nuclei of the rat brain. Oxytocin dose-dependently decreased the utilization of noradrenaline in the lateral and medial septal nuclei and anterior hypothalamic area, whereas an enhanced utilization was observed in the nucleus supraopticus. Tendency towards a change in utilization of noradrenaline was found in the dorsal septal nucleus and the lateral amygdala. Utilization of dopamine was not significantly affected in any of the nuclei of the brain studied. Tendency towards a decrease in utilization of dopamine was observed in the nucleus caudatus, globus pallidus and medial septal nucleus. It thus appears that oxytocin elicited changes in only a restricted number of brain nuclei. Interestingly, these nuclei contain cell bodies (nucleus supraopticus) and terminals (other nuclei) of the oxytocin system in the brain. Though the effects of oxytocin were not as widespread as those previously seen after administration of vasopressin, it is worthy of note that, in general, the effects of oxytocin were opposite to those seen after vasopressin. The opposite effects of vasopressin and oxytocin on catecholamine metabolism could be related to the opposite effects of the two peptides on behaviour, neuroendocrine and autonomic regulation.

Different cardiovascular profiles of three melanocortins in conscious rats; evidence for antagonism between gamma 2-MSH and ACTH-(1-24).

1. We investigated the effects of [Nle4,D-Phe7]alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (NDP-MSH), adrenocorticotropin-(1-24) (ACTH-(1-24)) and gamma 2-MSH, three melanocortins with different agonist selectivity for the five cloned melanocortin receptors, on blood pressure and heart rate in conscious, freely moving rats following intravenous administration. 2. As was previously found by other investigators as well as by us gamma 2-MSH, a peptide suggested to be an agonist with selectivity for the melanocortin MC3 receptor, caused a dose-dependent, short lasting pressor response in combination with a tachycardia. Despite the fact that NDP-MSH is a potent agonist of various melanocortin receptor subtypes, among which the melanocortin MC1 receptor, it did not affect blood pressure or heart rate, when administered i.v. in doses of up to 1000 nmol kg-1. 3. ACTH-(1-24) caused a dose-dependent decrease in blood pressure in combination with a dose-dependent increase in heart rate in a dose-range from 15 to 500 nmol kg-1. The cardiovascular effects of ACTH-(1-24) were independent of the presence of the adrenals. 4. Pretreatment with ACTH-(1-24) caused a pronounced, dose-dependent parallel shift to the right of the dose-response curve for the pressor and tachycardiac effects of gamma 2-MSH. The antagonistic effect of ACTH-(1-24) was already apparent following a dose of this peptide as low as 10 nmol kg-1, which when given alone had no intrinsic hypotensive activity. 5. These results form further support for the notion that it is not via activation of one of the as yet cloned melanocortin receptors that gamma-MSH-like peptides increase blood pressure and heart rate. The cardiovascular effects of ACTH-(1-24) seem not to be mediated by the adrenal melanocortin MC3 receptors, for which ACTH-(1-24) is a selective agonist, or by adrenal catecholamines. 6. There appears to be a functional antagonism between ACTH-(1-24) and gamma 2-MSH, two melanocortins derived from a common precursor, with respect to their effect on blood pressure and heart rate. Whether this antagonism plays a (patho)physiological role remains to be shown.

Basal and electrically stimulated release of [3H]noradrenaline and [3H]dopamine from rat amygdala slices in vitro: effects of 4 beta-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate and polymyxin B.

The protein kinase C activator 4 beta-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDB) enhanced in a concentration-dependent manner the electrically stimulated release of [3H]noradrenaline ([3H]NA) and [3H]dopamine ([3H]DA) from rat amygdala slices in vitro. PDB enhanced the basal release of [3H]NA and [3H]DA as well. 4 alpha-Phorbol 12,13-didecanoate, which lacks the capacity to activate protein kinase C, was without effect on either basal or electrically stimulated release of [3H]NA and [3H]DA. Polymyxin B, which is a relatively selective protein kinase C inhibitor, decreased in a concentration-dependent manner the electrically stimulated release of both [3H]NA and [3H]DA from amygdala slices, whereas it enhanced the basal release of both neuromessengers. In the presence of 1.5 X 10(-7) M PDB, a concentration which when added to the superfusion medium alone doubled the electrically stimulated release of both [3H]NA and [3H]DA, polymyxin B again decreased in a concentration-dependent manner the release of both neuromessengers. At all polymyxin B concentrations used, the effect of the PKC inhibitor, expressed as percent inhibition, in the presence of PDB was approximately the same as that observed in the absence of PDB. This suggests that the antagonism between PDB and polymyxin B at the level of protein kinase C is not a competitive one. The effects of PDB and polymyxin B on basal release were additive. Taken together, these data suggest that in the amygdala presynaptically localized protein kinase C plays a role in signal transduction processes related to the exocytotic secretion of NA and DA from their nerve terminals.

ACTH-(1-24) enhances the electrically stimulated release of [3H]dopamine from rat septal slices via a dopamine D2 receptor-independent mechanism.

ACTH-(1-24) enhanced the basal as well as the electrically stimulated release of [3H]dopamine from rat septal slices in vitro. In the absence of Ca2+ from the superfusion medium the effect of ACTH-(1-24) on the electrically stimulated release of [3H]dopamine was abolished. The stimulus-evoked release of [3H]dopamine from septal slices appeared to be modulated through dopamine receptors of the D2 subtype: the dopamine D2 receptor agonists 2-(N-propyl-N-2-thienylethylamino)-5-hydroxytetralin (N-0437) and quinpirole reduced, whereas the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride enhanced the electrically stimulated release of [3H]dopamine. The magnitude of the effect of ACTH-(1-24) on [3H]dopamine release was the same in the presence or absence of N-0437, quinpirole and sulpiride. ACTH-(1-24) had no effect on either the basal or the electrically stimulated release of [3H]noradrenaline. Also when the electrically stimulated release of [3H]noradrenaline was reduced by the alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine, the peptide was without effect. These results show that ACTH-(1-24) selectively enhances the release of [3H]dopamine from septal slices. The effect of the peptide is independent of the degree of activation of dopamine D2 receptors which modulate the stimulus-evoked release of [3H]dopamine. These results suggest that ACTH-(1-24) enhances the stimulus-evoked release of dopamine in the septum via a mechanism not associated with dopamine D2 autoreceptors.

Facilitation of memory consolidation by vasopressin: mediation by terminals of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle?

Administration of arginine-vasopressin (AVP, 5 micrograms, s.c.) immediately after the learning trial results in a long-term facilitation of a one-trial learning passive avoidance response. This effect of AVP is absent in animals with prior destruction of the ascending dorsal noradrenergic bundle by bilateral microinjection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Postlearning local microinjection of a minute amount of AVP via chronically implanted cannulae into the locus coeruleus did not influence passive avoidance behavior. Upon injection into the midbrain dorsal raphe nucleus, however AVP facilitated passive avoidance behavior. This effect, however, was absent in rats receiving previous microinjection of 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine (5,6-DHT) or of 6-OHDA into the dorsal raphe nucleus. Bilateral 6-OHDA-induced lesions of the nucleus accumbens or 5,6-DHT-induced destruction of the dorsal raphe nucleus did not prevent the effect of AVP administered subcutaneously. The data suggest that vasopressin facilitates memory consolidation processes by modulating noradrenergic neurotransmission in terminals of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle. The serotoninergic neuronal network originating from the dorsal raphe nucleus has a secondary--norepinephrine-mediated--influence upon these processes.

Interaction of vasopressin with the nigro-striatal dopamine system: site and mechanism of action.

The results of the present experiments show that local microinjections of Arg8-vasopressin into the nucl. caudatus cause an increase in the alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine methylester-HCl-induced disappearance of dopamine (DA) at the site of administration of the peptide. It is suggested that the caudate nucleus is the site of action of the peptide with respect to its effect on nigrostriatal DA neurons. This conclusion is corroborated by both the finding that microinjection of Arg8-vasopressin into the A9 region, which contains the cell bodies of the nigrostriatal system, was ineffective, and the results of push-pull experiments which showed an enhancement in apparent DA release in the nucl. caudatus when Arg8-vasopressin was co-perfused through the cannula system. Arg8-vasopressin appears to have a rather modest effect on nucl. caudatus DA synthesis, as was deduced from the results of experiments in which the in vitro conversion of tritiated tyrosine into tritiated DA was measured following in vivo Arg8-vasopressin administration as well as after in vitro incubation with the peptide. In conclusion, the interaction of vasopressin with the nigrostriatal DA system appears to be at the level of the DA terminals in the nucl. caudatus rather than at the level of the substantia nigra, and secondly, Arg8-vasopressin appears to affect DA release in the nucl. caudatus rather than DA synthesis.

Brain dopamine depletion by lesions in the substantia nigra attenuates the development of hypertension in the spontaneously hypertensive rat.

The involvement of brain dopamine in the development of hypertension in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) was studied. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in young SHR caused depletion of dopamine in frontal cortex and striatum and induced an attenuation of the development of hypertension in SHR. Depletion of noradrenaline and to a lesser extent of serotonin was found as well. The ratio of DOPAC and of HVA to dopamine was increased after 6-OHDA. Pretreatment with the dopamine re-uptake inhibitor GBR-12909 inhibited the effects of 6-OHDA on both blood pressure and brain dopamine content. The effect of 6-OHDA on noradrenaline and serotonin levels were not influenced by pretreatment with GBR-12909. Electrolytic lesions in the substantia nigra delayed the rise in blood pressure in SHR. Lesions in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) were ineffective. After substantia nigra lesions depletion of dopamine was found especially in the nucleus caudatus posterior and the dorsomedial nucleus. After lesions in the VTA substantial dopamine depletion was found in the nucleus accumbens, frontal cortex, lateral septal nucleus and zona incerta. These data suggest that brain dopamine systems play a role in the development of hypertension in SHR and that especially the nigrostriatal system is important in this respect. Moreover, the present results may help to explain the attenuating effect of prehypertensive treatment with 6-OHDA on the development of hypertension.

Aldosterone blocks the response to corticosterone in the raphe-hippocampal serotonin system.

The accumulation of serotonin induced by the monoamino oxidase inhibitor pargyline was used as an index for 5-HT turnover in the dorsal hippocampus and raphe area. A low dose of corticosterone administered s.c. immediately after adrenalectomy significantly increased serotonin turnover in both regions over the subsequent 1 h interval. The same dose of aldosterone was ineffective, but pretreatment with aldosterone blocked the serotonin response to corticosterone in the acutely adrenalectomized rat. [3H]Corticosterone administered to adrenalectomized rats was not retained by cell nuclei of the raphe area in a limited capacity manner as occurred in the hippocampus. Pretreatment with aldosterone blocked the uptake of [3H]corticosterone in hippocampal cell nuclei. It is concluded that corticosterone triggers a serotonin response and that the specificity of the corticosterone action suggests involvement of the steroid receptor system located postsynaptically to the raphe-hippocampal serotonin projection.

Effects of neonatal treatment with monosodium-glutamate in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Following neonatal treatment with monosodium-glutamate (MSG), blood pressure in adult spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) was markedly lower than in control SHR, with only a small decrease in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto controls (WKY). In addition, in MSG-treated SHR an increase in pain-sensitivity was found and both strains showed increased water intake and reduced organ and body weights as compared to vehicle-treated rats.

Microinjection of anti-vasopressin serum into limbic structures of the rat brain: effects on passive avoidance responding and on local catecholamine utilization.

Rats which had received bilateral microinjections of 1:50 diluted anti-vasopressin serum into the dorsal or ventral hippocampus, immediately after the learning trial of a one-trial passive avoidance test, showed a reduction in avoidance latency scores during subsequent retention tests 24 and 48 h later. Postlearning microinjection of anti-vasopressin serum into either the dorsolateral septum or the caudate nucleus was without effect on the retention of passive avoidance behavior. Microinjection of anti-vasopressin serum 1 h before the 24-h retention session into either the dorsal hippocampus, the ventral hippocampus or the dorsolateral septum attenuated avoidance responding during both the 24-h and 48-h retention sessions, whereas preretention microinjection of the serum into the caudate nucleus was not effective. Intracerebroventricular administration of the anti-vasopressin serum in amounts similar to those used in the microinjection experiments did not affect retention scores when given either immediately after the learning trial or before the first retention session. One week after the behavioral experiments, a repeated microinjection of anti-vasopressin serum decreased the local alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine methylester (alpha-MPT)-induced disappearance of noradrenaline in the ventral hippocampus and the dorsal hippocampus respectively. Microinjection of the antiserum in the dorsolateral septum enhanced noradrenaline disappearance in this brain region. No effect was found on alpha-MPT-induced dopamine disappearance in the caudate nucleus following local microinjection of anti-vasopressin serum.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Pro-Leu-GlyNH2 affects dopamine and noradrenaline utilization in rat limbic-forebrain nuclei.

The effects of Pro-Leu-GlyNH2 (PLG), administered i.c.v. in doses of 3.5, 35, 350 and 3500 pmol, were studied on the alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of catecholamines in microdissected rat brain nuclei. PLG, dose-dependently, increased dopamine disappearance in the nucleus caudatus and globus pallidus, whereas a decrease in dopamine disappearance was observed in the nucleus dorsomedialis. Noradrenaline disappearance was decreased in the medial septal nucleus, anterior hypothalamic area and lateral amygdala. A tendency towards an increase in noradrenaline disappearance was observed in the nucl. supraopticus. These data show that PLG has a central site of action. The effects of PLG on dopamine disappearance are comparable to those previously found with vasopressin, while the effects of PLG on noradrenaline utilization show a striking similarity with those previously obtained with oxytocin.

Synchronism of pressor response and grooming behavior in freely moving, conscious rats following intracerebroventricular administration of ACTH/MSH-like peptides.

After the i.c.v. administration of 300 pmol ACTH-(1-24) or [Nle4,D-Phe7]alpha-MSH, a long-lasting increase in blood pressure was observed synchronously with the incidence of excessive grooming. Two structurally related peptides with no grooming behavior-inducing potency, ACTH-(7-16)-NH2 and gamma 2-MSH, in doses of 300 and 500 pmol, respectively, caused a slight and short-lasting increase in blood pressure or had no effect, respectively. When the grooming behavior-inducing effect of ACTH-(1-24) was abolished, either by the prior manipulation of central dopaminergic neurotransmission by the i.c.v. administration of the dopamine receptor antagonist, haloperidol, or, due to the occurrence of single-dose tolerance to ACTH-(1-24), the pressor response was abolished as well. These data are in support of the postulate that the incidence of grooming behavior and the elevation of blood pressure are temporally associated and indicate that the two phenomena are causally related.

Dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the caudate nucleus of spontaneously hypertensive rats and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats.

A series of studies was carried out to characterize the binding properties of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in membrane homogenates of the caudate nucleus of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Binding in SHR was studied at the age of 4 weeks when the rats were still in the prehypertensive phase, and at the age of 8 weeks, during the phase in which blood pressure is increasing dramatically; age-matched normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) were used as controls. Binding to dopamine D1 receptors was studied using [3H]SCH 23390. Antagonist binding of dopamine D2 receptors was performed with [3H]spiperone. At both ages no differences were found between SHR and WKY in affinity (Kd) or concentration (Bmax) of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors. Binding to the high affinity state of the dopamine D2 receptor was measured using the agonist [3H]N-n-propylnorapomorphine (NPA). No differences in Bmax or Kd were found between SHR and WKY at both ages studied, indicating that the ratio between dopamine D2 receptors in the high and in the low affinity state is not altered in spontaneous hypertension. Although the results do not reveal differences in affinities or concentrations of dopamine D1 or D2 receptors in the caudate nucleus between SHR and WKY, a role in the development of hypertension for the here described lack of receptor up-regulation in connection with our previous observation of lower release of dopamine in the caudate nucleus of SHR, cannot be excluded.

Effect of des-Tyr1-gamma-endorphin and des-Tyr1-alpha-endorphin on alpha-MPT-induced catecholamine disappearance in rat brain nuclei: a dose--response study.

The effect of des-Tyr1-gamma-endorphin (beta-LPH62-77, DT gamma E) and des-Tyr1-alpha-endorphin (beta-LPH62-76, DT alpha E), administered intracerebroventricularly (icv) in doses of 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 micrograms, was studied on the alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine-(alpha-MPT) induced disappearance of catecholamines in a number of microdissected rat brain regions, which were selected on the basis of the neuroanatomy of the dopamine systems in the brain and of previous observations. A dose-dependent increase in the disappearance of dopamine in alpha-MPT-pretreated rats was observed following icv administration of DT gamma E in the nucleus interstitialis striae terminalis, the paraventricular nucleus, the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the zona incerta. In these same brain regions a decrease in the alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of dopamine was found following the administration of DT alpha E, but only after doses of 0.01, 0.1 and 1 microgram. In none of these regions were effects observed after 10 micrograms of DT alpha E. No effects were seen on dopamine utilization in the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus and median eminence after any of the doses of DT gamma E or DT alpha E. The alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of noradrenaline was significantly enhanced in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus of rats treated with DT gamma E. It is concluded that DT gamma E and DT alpha E induce opposite changes in the utilization of dopamine selectively in brain regions which are predominantly innervated by neurons belonging to the intradiencephalic dopamine systems.

4-Aminopyridine differentially affects the spontaneous release of radiolabelled transmitters from rat brain slices in vitro.

4-Aminopyridine increased the release of [3H]noradrenaline from dorsal hippocampus slices in vitro in a concentration-dependent manner. When the slices were exposed to 4-aminopyridine for 5 min, the overflow of radioactivity returned to pre-exposure values within 20-25 min. When the exposure of the slices was continued, a sustained enhancement of the release of [3H]noradrenaline was observed for the duration of the exposure. 4-Aminopyridine, 10(-4) M, had an effect of similar magnitude, or an even more pronounced effect, on the release of [3H]catecholamine from cortex, septum, periaqueductal gray and striatum slices. The effects of the compound on the release of [3H]5-hydroxytryptamine and [14C]acetylcholine were less pronounced. At this concentration 4-aminopyridine had no effect on the release of [3H]D-aspartate from hippocampus or septum slices, whereas the effect on the release of this transmitter in striatal slices was marginal. The effect of 4-aminopyridine on the release of [3H]noradrenaline in hippocampus slices was largely dependent on the presence of Ca2+ in the superfusion medium. This was also the case for the effect on the release of [3H]noradrenaline from preloaded dorsal hippocampus synaptosomes. In the presence of nitrendipine the effect of 4-aminopyridine was dose-dependently reduced, but the maximal reduction, at a nitrendipine concentration of 10(-4) M, was only 40%. Cd2+ completely abolished the effect of 4-aminopyridine on the release of [3H]noradrenaline. These results confirm that the enhancing effect of 4-aminopyridine on the release of [3H]noradrenaline depends on the entry of extracellular Ca2+ into the nerve terminals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effect of oxytocin and vasopressin on memory consolidation: sites of action and catecholaminergic correlates after local microinjection into limbic-midbrain structures.

The effects of local postlearning microinjections of arginine-vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OXT) on one-trial learning passive avoidance behavior and the influence of AVP on alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) in discrete brain regions have been studied in the rat. OXT injected bilaterally in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (25-25 pg) or in the midbrain dorsal raphe nucleus (50 pg) significantly attenuated passive avoidance behavior. Facilitation of passive avoidance behavior was observed when the peptide was injected into the dorsal septal nucleus. AVP facilitated passive avoidance behavior when administered into the hippocampal dentate gyrus, dorsal raphe nucleus or dorsal septal nucleus. Injection of either neuropeptides into the central amygdaloid nucleus appeared to be ineffective. One week after the behavioral experiments a repeated injection of AVP into the hippocampal dentate gyrus increased the disappearance of NE in the dentate gyrus and in the nucleus ruber. An injection into the dorsal septal nuclei decreased the NE disappearance in the dorsal septal nucleus itself and increased it in the nucleus ruber. Injection in the dorsal raphe nucleus led to an increase in the disappearance of DA in the locus coeruleus and in the nucleus ruber. It is concluded that memory consolidation can be oppositely influenced by local application of minute amounts of either OXT or AVP into certain limbic-midbrain structures, suggesting an involvement of these brain regions in the memory effects of these peptides. Modulation of catecholamine turnover in specific brain areas after AVP administration may be related to this behavioral effect.

Noradrenaline concentration and turnover in nuclei of the hyothalamus and the medulla oblongata at two stages in the development of renal hypertension in the rat.

The noradrenaline concentration and the alpha-methyl-para-tyrosine (alpha-MPT)-induced disappearance of noradrenaline were determined in several nuclei of the hypothalamus and the medulla oblongata of renal hypertensive rats (two-kidney Goldblatt hypertension). A decreased alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of noradrenaline was found in the nucleus interstitialis striae terminalis and the nucleus paraventricularis 3 days after renal artery constriction, when blood pressure was slightly, but significantly higher than that of sham operated rats. At this stage the alpha-MPT-induced disappearance of noradrenaline was enhanced in the nucleus commissuralis and the A1-region of hypertensive rats while the noradrenaline concentration in the A1-region was significantly elevated. No significant differences were found in both parameters in hypothalamic and medullary nuclei 3.5 weeks after the operation, when hypertension had fully developed. These findings are indicative of the occurrence of transient changes in the activity of noradrenergic neurons located in the medulla oblongata and projecting to the hypothalamus during the initiation of the development of two-kidney Goldblatt hypertension.