High prevalence of non-dipping patterns among Black Africans with uncontrolled hypertension: a secondary analysis of the CREOLE trial.

BACKGROUND: Dipping of blood pressure (BP) at night is a normal physiological phenomenon. However, a non-dipping pattern is associated with hypertension mediated organ damage, secondary forms of hypertension and poorer long-term outcome. Identifying a non-dipping pattern may be useful in assessing risk, aiding the decision to investigate for secondary causes, initiating treatment, assisting decisions on choice and timing of antihypertensive therapy, and intensifying salt restriction. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence and factors associated with non-dipping pattern and determine the effect of 6 months of three antihypertensive regimens on the dipping pattern among Black African hypertensive patients. METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of the CREOLE Study which was a randomized, single blind, three-group trial conducted in 10 sites in 6 Sub-Saharan African countries. The participants were 721 Black African patients, aged between 30 and 79 years, with uncontrolled hypertension and a baseline 24-h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM). Dipping was calculated from the average day and average night systolic blood pressure measures. RESULTS: The prevalence of non-dipping pattern was 78% (564 of 721). Factors that were independently associated with non-dipping were: serum sodium > 140 mmol/l (OR = 1.72, 95% CI 1.17-2.51, p-value 0.005), a higher office systolic BP (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.05, p-value 0.003) and a lower office diastolic BP (OR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.95-0.99, p-value 0.03). Treatment allocation did not change dipping status at 6 months (McNemar's Chi2 0.71, p-value 0.40). CONCLUSION: There was a high prevalence of non-dipping among Black Africans with uncontrolled hypertension. ABPM should be considered more routinely in Black Africans with uncontrolled hypertension, if resources permit, to help personalise therapy. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms and causes of non-dipping pattern and if targeting night-time BP improves clinical outcomes. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02742467).

Intermittent Preventive Treatment with Dihydroartemisinin-Piperaquine in Ugandan Schoolchildren Selects for Plasmodium falciparum Transporter Polymorphisms That Modify Drug Sensitivity.

Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) offers prolonged protection against malaria, but its impact on Plasmodium falciparum drug sensitivity is uncertain. In a trial of intermittent preventive treatment in schoolchildren in Tororo, Uganda, in 2011 to 2012, monthly DP for 1 year decreased the incidence of malaria by 96% compared to placebo; DP once per school term offered protection primarily during the first month after therapy. To assess the impact of DP on selection of drug resistance, we compared the prevalence of key polymorphisms in isolates that emerged at different intervals after treatment with DP. Blood obtained monthly and at each episode of fever was assessed for P. falciparum parasitemia by microscopy. Samples from 160 symptomatic and 650 asymptomatic episodes of parasitemia were assessed at 4 loci (N86Y, Y184F, and D1246Y in pfmdr1 and K76T in pfcrt) that modulate sensitivity to aminoquinoline antimalarials, utilizing a ligase detection reaction-fluorescent microsphere assay. For pfmdr1 N86Y and pfcrt K76T, but not the other studied polymorphisms, the prevalences of mutant genotypes were significantly greater in children who had received DP within the past 30 days than in those not treated within 60 days (86Y, 18.0% versus 8.3% [P = 0.03]; 76T, 96.0% versus 86.1% [P = 0.05]), suggesting selective pressure of DP. Full sequencing of pfcrt in a subset of samples did not identify additional polymorphisms selected by DP. In summary, parasites that emerged soon after treatment with DP were more likely than parasites not under drug pressure to harbor pfmdr1 and pfcrt polymorphisms associated with decreased sensitivity to aminoquinoline antimalarials. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under no. NCT01231880.).

Identifying locations of recent TB transmission in rural Uganda: a multidisciplinary approach.

OBJECTIVES: Targeting high Tuberculosis (TB) transmission sites may offer a novel approach to TB prevention in sub-Saharan Africa. We sought to characterise TB transmission sites in a rural Ugandan township. METHODS: We recruited adults starting TB treatment in Tororo, Uganda, over 1 year. Fifty four TB cases provided names of frequent contacts, sites of residence, health care, work and social activities, and two sputum samples. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) culture-positive specimens underwent spoligotyping to identify strains with shared genotypes. We visualised TB case social networks, and obtained, mapped and geo-coded global positioning system measures for every location that cases reported frequenting 1 month before treatment. Locations of spatial overlap among genotype-clustered cases were considered potential transmission sites. RESULTS: Six distinct genotypic clusters were identified involving 21 of 33 (64%) MTB culture-positive, genotyped cases; none shared a home. Although 18 of 54 (33%) TB cases shared social network ties, none of the genotype-clustered cases shared social ties. Using spatial analysis, we identified potential sites of within-cluster TB transmission for five of six genotypic clusters. All sites but one were healthcare and social venues, including sites of drinking, worship and marketplaces. Cases reported spending the largest proportion of pre-treatment person-time (22.4%) at drinking venues. CONCLUSIONS: Using molecular epidemiology, geospatial and social network data from adult TB cases identified at clinics, we quantified person-time spent at high-risk locations across a rural Ugandan community and determined the most likely sites of recent TB transmission to be healthcare and social venues. These sites may not have been identified using contact investigation alone.

Impact of intermittent preventive treatment with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine on malaria in Ugandan schoolchildren: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) in schoolchildren offers a promising option for malaria control. However, the optimal drug and dosing regimens for IPT remain to be determined. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 740 schoolchildren aged 6-14 years living in a setting of high malaria transmission in Uganda. Enrolled children were randomized to dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) given once a month (IPTm), DP given once a school term (4 treatments over 12 months, IPTst), or placebo and followed for 12 months. The primary outcome was the incidence of malaria over 12 months. Secondary outcomes included parasite prevalence and anemia over 12 months. Analyses were conducted on an intention-to-treat basis. RESULTS: In the placebo arm, the incidence of malaria was 0.34 episodes per person-year and the prevalence of parasitemia and anemia was 38% and 20%, respectively. IPTm reduced the incidence of malaria by 96% (95% confidence interval [CI], 88%-99%, P < .0001), the prevalence of asymptomatic parasitemia by 94% (95% CI, 92%-96%, P < .0001), and the prevalence of anemia by 40% (95% CI, 19%-56%, P < .0001). IPTst had no significant effect on the incidence of symptomatic malaria or the prevalence of anemia, but reduced the prevalence of asymptomatic parasitemia by 54% (95% CI, 47%-60%, P < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Monthly IPT with DP offered remarkable protection against clinical malaria, parasitemia, and anemia in schoolchildren living in a high-malaria-transmission setting. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT01231880.

Prevalence and determinants of minimum dietary diversity for women of reproductive age in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Globally, over a billion women of reproductive age (WRA) suffer from some kind of undernutrition micronutrient deficiencies, and/or anemia as a result of inadequate dietary diversity. This leads to poor maternal and child health outcomes, however, there is limited research on population level research on minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W). This study assessed the prevalence and predictors of MDD-W among WRA in Uganda. METHODS: This study was a secondary analysis of data from the lot quality assurance sampling (LQAS) survey conducted across 55 Ugandan districts between May and September 2022. Women of various ages were interviewed across 5 study subgroups that this study used to construct its study population (WRA). Descriptive analyses, tests for outcome differences, and multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression were conducted at a 5% statistical significance level using STATA version 17. The results were reported using Adjusted Odds Ratios (aOR) as the measure of the outcome. RESULTS: The study analyzed responses from 29,802 WRA with a mean age of 27.8 (± 6.8) years. Only 8.8% (95% CI 8.5-9.3) achieved the MDD-W, the least proportion was observed in the South-Central region (3.13%). In the adjusted analysis, WRA who were older than 25 years (aOR 1.1, 95% CI 1.1-1.3, p < 0.001), had secondary education (aOR = 1.4, 95% CI 1.1-1.7, p = 0.003) or above (aOR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.3-2.2, p < 0.001), and used modern contraceptives (aOR = 1.1, 95% CI 1.0-1.3, p = 0.01) were more likely to achieve the MDD-W. Conversely, WRA who travelled longer distances to the nearest household water source (aOR = 0.8, 95% CI 0.7-0.9, p = 0.002) and those residing in larger households (aOR = 0.9, 95% CI 0.8-1.0, p = 0.019) were less likely to achieve the MDD-W. CONCLUSION: A low proportion of WRA met the MDD-W. Age, education level, household sizes and use of modern contraception were predictors of MDD-W among WRA in Uganda. MDD-W-related program efforts in Uganda should strengthen multisectoral collaboration with prioritization of younger women, education, household sizes and access to safe water sources.

Level of minimum acceptable diet and its associated factors among children aged 12-23 months in Ugandan districts.

Uganda has made notable progress in improving child nutrition indicators, albeit not fast enough to meet global targets. Navigating the landscape of child nutrition in Uganda demands attention, particularly in light of the necessity for a minimum acceptable diet (MAD) for children aged 12-23 months. While the focus on local nutritional planning is crucial, the absence of routine-specific nutritional status data creates a significant information gap. To bridge this void, this study used datasets from the 2021 Lot Quality Assurance Sampling (LQAS) survey. Data were analysed using multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression (clustering districts based on regional boundaries) at a 5% statistical significance level using STATA version 17. Of the 7,111 children surveyed, 3,256 (49.20%) received the minimum meal frequency, 695 (9.80%) received the minimum dietary diversity, and only 380 (5.34%) received the MAD. There was a notable variation in the proportion of children that received the MAD across regions and districts. Children living in urban areas, children whose mothers had a higher education, and children whose mothers had a diverse diet were more likely to receive the MAD. Children were less likely to receive the MAD if they lived in a household that did not receive a health worker visit within the year. These findings suggest a need to prioritize initiatives aimed at increasing dietary diversity among children in Uganda. This could be done through a variety of approaches, such as leveraging the use of home gardens to boost nutrition through diverse crop cultivation, demonstration gardens, and offering nutrition counselling through village health teams.

Postpartum family planning uptake in Uganda: findings from the lot quality assurance sampling survey.

BACKGROUND: The initiation and use of family planning (FP) services within the first 12 months following childbirth, postpartum family planning (PPFP), promotes safe motherhood by reducing unintended pregnancies and ensuring appropriate pregnancy spacing. However, there is a paucity of information on PPFP uptake from community surveys. This study aimed to quantify the reported use of PPFP and identify predictors and barriers to PPFP uptake from a large community survey. METHODS: We analysed data collected from the 2021 Lot Quality Assurance Sampling (LQAS) survey, a cross-sectional community and household survey that covered 68 districts in Uganda. The survey uses small sample sizes to designate health or administrative geographical areas which are assessed to determine whether they achieved the pre-determined target for defined indicators of interest. We abstracted and analysed data collected from mothers of children aged 12 months or younger on reproductive health and FP. PPFP use was defined as the reported use of modern FP by the mother or their partner. Associations were measured using Pearson's chi-square test at 5% significance. Multivariate logistic regression was performed for variables that were significantly associated with PPFP use to identify the predictors of PPFP. RESULTS: Overall, 8103 mothers of children aged less than 12 years were included in the analysis; the majority of mothers, 55.8% (4521/8103) were above 24 years while 11.7% (950/8103) were 19 years and under. 98% (7942/8103) of the mothers attended at least one antenatal care (ANC) visit and 86.3% (6997/8103) delivered at a health facility. Only 10% (814/8103) of mothers who participated in the survey reported PPFP use at the time of the survey. Reporting of PPFP use was 5 times higher among mothers of children aged 7-12 months (AOR 4.9; 95%CI 4.1-5.8), 50% higher among mothers with secondary education (AOR 1.5; 95%CI 1.0-2.3), 80% higher among breastfeeding mothers (AOR 1.8; 95%CI 1.3-2.4) and 30% lower among those that didn't receive a health worker visit within 3 months preceding the survey (AOR 0.7; 95% CI 0.5-0.8). Among 4.6% (372/8103) who stated a reason for non-use of PPFP, the most cited reasons for not using were breastfeeding 43% (161/372), fear of side effects 26.9% (100/372), respondent/partner opposition 17.6% (48/372) and infrequent sex 12.1% (48/372). CONCLUSION: The analysis showed a low proportion of PPFP uptake among mothers of children under 12 years. Possible barriers included child age, education, a health worker visit, and side effects and perceived benefits of possibly improperly implementing lactation amenorrhea method. Integration of social, community and health services could provide a more holistic approach to improving PPFP uptake.

Increased malaria parasitaemia among adults living with HIV who have discontinued cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in Kitgum district, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Although WHO recommends cotrimoxazole (CTX) discontinuation among HIV patients who have undergone immune recovery and are living in areas of low prevalence of malaria, some countries including Uganda recommend CTX discontinuation despite having a high malaria burden. We estimated the prevalence and factors associated with malaria parasitaemia among adults living with HIV attending hospital outpatient clinic before and after discontinuation of CTX prophylaxis. METHODS: Between March and April 2019, 599 participants aged 18 years and above, and attending Kitgum hospital HIV clinic in Uganda were enrolled in a cross study. A standardized questionnaire was administered and physical examination conducted. A finger-prick blood sample was collected for identification of malaria parasites by microscopy. The prevalence of parasitaemia was estimated and compared among participants on and those who had discontinued CTX prophylaxis, and factors associated with malaria parasitaemia assessed. RESULTS: Of the enrolled participants, 27 (4.5%) had malaria parasites and 452 (75.5%) had stopped CTX prophylaxis. Prevalence of malaria parasitaemia was significantly higher in participants who had stopped CTX prophylaxis (5.5% versus 1.4% p = 0.03) and increased with increasing duration since the discontinuation of prophylaxis. Compared to participants taking CTX, those who discontinued prophylaxis for 3-5 months and >5 months were more likely to have malaria parasites (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) = 1.64, 95% CI 0.37-7.29, p = 0.51, and aPR = 6.06, 95% CI 1.34-27.3, P = 0.02). Low CD4 count (< 250cells/mm3) was also associated with increased risk of having parasites (aPR = 4.31, 95% CI 2.13-8.73, p <0.001). CONCLUSION: People from malaria endemic settings living with HIV have a higher prevalence of malaria parasitaemia following discontinuation of CTX compared to those still on prophylaxis. The risk increased with increasing duration since discontinuation of the prophylaxis. HIV patients should not discontinue CTX prophylaxis in areas of Uganda where the burden of malaria remains high. Other proven malaria control interventions may also be encouraged in HIV patients following discontinuation of CTX prophylaxis.

Spatial overlap links seemingly unconnected genotype-matched TB cases in rural Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: Incomplete understanding of TB transmission dynamics in high HIV prevalence settings remains an obstacle for prevention. Understanding where transmission occurs could provide a platform for case finding and interrupting transmission. METHODS: From 2012-2015, we sought to recruit all adults starting TB treatment in a Ugandan community. Participants underwent household (HH) contact investigation, and provided names of social contacts, sites of work, healthcare and socializing, and two sputum samples. Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture-positive specimens underwent 24-loci MIRU-VNTR and spoligotyping. We sought to identify epidemiologic links between genotype-matched cases by analyzing social networks and mapping locations where cases reported spending ≥12 hours over the one-month pre-treatment. Sites of spatial overlap (≤100m) between genotype-matched cases were considered potential transmission sites. We analyzed social networks stratified by genotype clustering status, with cases linked by shared locations, and compared network density by location type between clustered vs. non-clustered cases. RESULTS: Of 173 adults with TB, 131 (76%) were enrolled, 108 provided sputum, and 84/131 (78%) were MTB culture-positive: 52% (66/131) tested HIV-positive. Of 118 adult HH contacts, 105 (89%) were screened and 3 (2.5%) diagnosed with active TB. Overall, 33 TB cases (39%) belonged to 15 distinct MTB genotype-matched clusters. Within each cluster, no cases shared a HH or reported shared non-HH contacts. In 6/15 (40%) clusters, potential epidemiologic links were identified by spatial overlap at specific locations: 5/6 involved health care settings. Genotype-clustered TB social networks had significantly greater network density based on shared clinics (p<0.001) and decreased density based on shared marketplaces (p<0.001), compared to non-clustered networks. CONCLUSIONS: In this molecular epidemiologic study, links between MTB genotype-matched cases were only identifiable via shared locations, healthcare locations in particular, rather than named contacts. This suggests most transmission is occurring between casual contacts, and emphasizes the need for improved infection control in healthcare settings in rural Africa.

Significant rates of risky sexual behaviours among HIV-infected patients failing first-line ART: A sub-study of the Europe-Africa Research Network for the Evaluation of Second-line Therapy trial.

There are limited data on the prevalence of risky sexual behaviours in individuals failing first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) and changes in sexual behaviour after switch to second-line ART. We undertook a sexual behaviour sub-study of Ugandan adults enrolled in the Europe-Africa Research Network for the Evaluation of Second-line Therapy trial. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect sexual behaviour data and, in particular, risky sexual behaviours (defined as additional sexual partners to main sexual partner, inconsistent use of condoms, non-disclosure to sexual partners, and exchange of money for sex). Of the 79 participants enrolled in the sub-study, 62% were female, median age (IQR) was 37 (32-42) years, median CD4 cell count (IQR) was 79 (50-153) cells/µl, and median HIV viral load log was 4.9 copies/ml (IQR: 4.5-5.3) at enrolment. The majority were in long-term stable relationships; 69.6% had a main sexual partner and 87.3% of these had been sexually active in the preceding six months. At enrolment, around 20% reported other sexual partners, but this was higher among men than women (36% versus 6.7 %, p < 0.001). In 50% there was inconsistent condom use with their main sexual partner and a similar proportion with other sexual partners, both at baseline and follow-up. Forty-three per cent of participants had not disclosed their HIV status to their main sexual partner (73% with other sexual partners) at enrolment, which was similar in men and women. Overall, there was no significant change in these sexual behaviours over the 96 weeks following switch to second-line ART, but rate of non-disclosure of HIV status declined significantly (43.6% versus 19.6%, p <0.05). Among persons failing first-line ART, risky sexual behaviours were prevalent, which has implications for potential onward transmission of drug-resistant virus. There is need to intensify sexual risk reduction counselling and promotion of partner testing and disclosure, especially at diagnosis of treatment failure and following switch to second- or third-line ART.

Belief in divine healing can be a barrier to antiretroviral therapy adherence in Uganda.

Although recent data suggest high levels of adherence to expanding antiretroviral therapy (ART) programmes in resource-limited settings, the culture-specific barriers to adherence are poorly understood. In a prospective observational study, we found that 1.2% of patients discontinued ART because of a belief in spiritual healing. Spiritual beliefs should be an important part of ART adherence counselling in resource-limited settings, requiring close collaboration between HIV care programmes and religious leaders to identify common goals and ensure successful treatment.

Hazardous alcohol consumption is not associated with CD4+ T-cell count decline among PLHIV in Kampala Uganda: A prospective cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: There is limited data on the effects of alcohol on immunological response among persons living with HIV (PLHIV) in sub-Saharan Africa. We assessed the relationship between hazardous alcohol use and CD4+ T-cell count, among PLHIV in Uganda. METHODS: PLHIV aged ≥ 18 years were enrolled in a cohort study at the Infectious diseases clinic Kampala, Uganda. Alcohol consumption was assessed at enrolment (baseline) and 6 monthly thereafter using the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT). The CD4+ T-cell counts, assessed at baseline and over the next 12 months were compared between alcohol use strata, using linear mixed effects regression. Using longitudinal mediation analysis methods, we estimated the effect of alcohol induced ART non-adherence on CD4+ T-cell count. RESULTS: Of the 1566 participants enrolled, 863(44.1%) were non-alcohol users (AUDIT score = 0), 433(27.7%) were non-hazardous (AUDIT score 1-7) alcohol users while 270 (17.2%) were hazardous (AUDIT score ≥ 8) alcohol users. The overall median (IQR) baseline CD4+ T-cell count was 356 (243-516) cells/µl. There were no differences in the median baseline CD4+ T-cell count between hazardous and non-hazardous alcohol users compared to non-alcohol users in both the non-ART (p = 0.43) and ART group (p = 0.77). The mean CD4+ T-cell count over 12 months was not different between hazardous alcohol users and non-alcohol users (non-ART group p = 0.88 and ART group p = 0.62), nor between non-hazardous alcohol users and non-alcohol users (and non-ART group p = 0.66 and ART group p = 0.20). Alcohol use was not associated with a significant natural direct effect on CD4+ T-cell count (1.37 95%CI [-1.78, 4.52] cells/µl, p = 0.39) but had a statistically significant natural indirect effect on reduction of CD4+ T-cell count (-0.91 cells/µl [-1.36, -0.45], p < 0.001) mediated through ART non-adherence. CONCLUSION: Hazardous alcohol use among PLHIV was not directly associated with lower CD4+ T-cell count but had a significant natural indirect effect on CD4+ T-cell count mediated through ART non-adherence. Among PLHIV with lower than expected CD4+ T-cell count, alcohol consumption should be excluded as an underlying factor for non-adherence to ART and any interventions targeting alcohol use should tackle possible ART non-adherence.

Efficacy of a Single, Brief Alcohol Reduction Intervention among Men and Women Living with HIV/AIDS and Using Alcohol in Kampala, Uganda: A Randomized Trial.

We evaluated the efficacy of a brief motivational intervention (MI) counseling in reducing alcohol consumption among persons living with HIV/AIDS in Kampala, Uganda. Persons living with HIV/AIDS with Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Tool (AUDIT) score ≥3 points were randomized to either standardized positive prevention counseling alone or in combination with alcohol brief MI counseling. The mean change in AUDIT-C scores over 6 months was compared by treatment arm. The mean (standard deviation [SD]) AUDIT-C scores were 6.3 (2.3) and 6.8 (2.3) for control and MI arms ( P = .1) at baseline, respectively, and change in mean AUDIT-C score was not statistically different between arms over the 6 months ( P = .8). However, there was a statistically significant decrease in mean AUDIT-C score (-1.10; 95% confidence interval: -2.19 to -0.02, P = .046) among women in the MI arm. There was a nondifferential reduction in alcohol consumption overall, but MI appeared effective among women only. Studies with more than 1 counseling session and evaluation of gender differences in treatment response are needed.

Alcohol Consumption among HIV-Infected Persons in a Large Urban HIV Clinic in Kampala Uganda: A Constellation of Harmful Behaviors.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol use by persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) negatively impacts the public health benefits of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Using a standardized alcohol assessment tool, we estimate the prevalence of alcohol use, identify associated factors, and test the association of alcohol misuse with sexual risk behaviors among PLWHA in Uganda. METHODS: A cross-section of PLWHA in Kampala were interviewed regarding their sexual behavior and self-reported alcohol consumption in the previous 6 months. Alcohol use was assessed using the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT). Gender-stratified log binomial regression analyses were used to identify independent factors associated with alcohol misuse and to test whether alcohol misuse was associated with risky sexual behaviors. RESULTS: Of the 725 subjects enrolled, 235 (33%) reported any alcohol use and 135 (18.6%) reported alcohol misuse, while 38 (5.2%) drank hazardous levels of alcohol. Alcohol misuse was more likely among subjects not yet on ART (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] was 1.65 p=0.043 for males and 1.79, p=0.019 for females) and those with self-reported poor adherence (aPR for males=1.56, p=0.052, and for females=1.93, p=0.0189). Belonging to Pentecostal or Muslim religious denominations was protective against alcohol misuse compared to belonging to Anglican and Catholic denominations in both sexes (aPR=0.11 for men, p<0.001, and aPR=0.32 for women, p=0.003). Alcohol misuse was independently associated with reporting risky sexual behaviors (aPR=1.67; 95% CI: 1.07-2.60, p=0.023) among males, but not significant among females (aPR=1.29; 95% CI: 0.95-1.74, p=0.098). Non-disclosure of HIV positive status to sexual partner was significantly associated with risky sex in both males (aPR=1.69; p=0.014) and females (aPR 2.45; p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Alcohol use among PLWHA was high, and was associated with self-reported medication non-adherence, non-disclosure of HIV positive status to sexual partner(s), and risky sexual behaviors among male subjects. Interventions targeting alcohol use and the associated negative behaviors should be tested in this setting.

Outcomes in a Cohort of Patients Started on Antiretroviral Treatment and Followed up for a Decade in an Urban Clinic in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Short-medium term studies from sub-Saharan Africa show that, despite high early mortality, substantial loss to program, and high rates toxicity, patients on antiretroviral treatment have achieved outcomes comparable to those in developed settings. However, these studies were unable to account for long term outcomes of patients as they stayed longer on treatment. OBJECTIVES: We aim to describe ten years outcomes of one of the first cohort of HIV positive patients started on antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: We report 10-years outcomes including mortality, retention, CD4-count response, virological outcomes, ART regimens change from a prospective cohort of 559 patients initiating ART and followed up for 10 years Uganda. RESULTS: Of 559 patients, 69.1% were female, median age (IQR) was 38 (33-44) years, median CD4-count (IQR) 98 (21-163) cell/µL; 74% were started on stavudine, lamivudine and nevirapine, 26% on zidovudine, lamivudine and efavirenz. After 10 years 361 (65%) patients were still in the study; 127 (22.7%) had died; 30 (5%) were lost to follow-up; 27 (5%) transferred; 18 (3%) withdrew consent. The probability of death was high in the first year (0.15, 95%, CI 0.12-0.18). The median CD4 count increased from 98 to 589 cell/µL (IQR: 450-739 cell/µL) with a median increase of 357 cells/µL (IQR: 128-600 cells/µL); 7.4% never attained initial viral suppression and of those who did 31.7% experienced viral failure. Three hundred and two patients had at least one drug substitution while on first line after a median of 40 months; 66 (11.9%) of the patients were switched to a second line PI-based regimen due to confirmed treatment failure. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the high rate of early mortality due to advanced disease at presentation the outcomes from this cohort are encouraging, particularly the remarkable and incremental immune-recovery and a satisfactory rate of virologic suppression.

Asymptomatic Plasmodium infection and cognition among primary schoolchildren in a high malaria transmission setting in Uganda.

Asymptomatic parasitemia is common among schoolchildren living in areas of high malaria transmission, yet little is known about its effect on cognitive function in these settings. To investigate associations between asymptomatic parasitemia, anemia, and cognition among primary schoolchildren living in a high malaria transmission setting, we studied 740 children enrolled in a clinical trial in Tororo, Uganda. Parasitemia, measured by thick blood smears, was present in 30% of the children. Infected children had lower test scores for abstract reasoning (adjusted mean difference [AMD] -0.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.01 to -0.21) and sustained attention (AMD -1.6 95% CI -2.40 to -0.81) compared with uninfected children. There was also evidence for a dose-response relationship between parasite density and scores for sustained attention. No associations were observed between anemia and either test of cognition. Schoolchildren in high transmission settings may experience cognitive benefits, from interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence of asymptomatic parasitemia.

Sexual behaviors over a 3-year period among individuals with advanced HIV/AIDS receiving antiretroviral therapy in an urban HIV clinic in Kampala, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have prospectively examined sexual behaviors of HIV-infected person on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Between 2004 and 2005, 559 HIV-infected, ART-naïve individuals initiating ART at an HIV clinic in Kampala, Uganda, were enrolled into a prospective study and followed to 2008. Clinical and sexual behavior information was assessed at enrollment and semiannually for 3 years after ART initiation. Using log-binomial regression models, we estimated prevalence ratios (PRs) to determine factors associated with being sexually active and having unprotected sex over 3 years after initiating ART. RESULTS: Five hundred fifty-nine adults contributed 2594 person-visits of follow-up. At the time of ART initiation, 323 (57.9%) were sexually active of which 176 (54.5%) had unprotected sex at last sexual intercourse. The majority (63.4%) of married individuals were unaware of their partner's HIV status. Female gender (PR, 2.97; 95% confidence interval, 1.85-4.79), being married (PR, 1.48; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-2.06), and reporting unprotected sex before ART (PR, 1.68; 95% confidence interval, 1.16-2.42) were among the factors independently associated with unprotected sex while on ART. Overall, 7.3% of visit intervals of unprotected sex, 1.0% of intervals of sexual activity, occurred when plasma viral load greater than 1500 copies/mL, representing periods of greater HIV transmission risk. CONCLUSIONS: Although unprotected sex reduced over time, women reported unprotected sex more often than men. Disclosure of HIV status was low. Integration of comprehensive prevention programs into HIV care is needed, particularly ones specific for women.