RNA editing enzyme adenosine deaminase is a restriction factor for controlling measles virus replication that also is required for embryogenesis.

Measles virus (MV), a member of the family Paramyxoviridae and an exclusively human pathogen, is among the most infectious viruses. A progressive fatal neurodegenerative complication, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE), occurs during persistent MV infection of the CNS and is associated with biased hypermutations of the viral genome. The observed hypermutations of A-to-G are consistent with conversions catalyzed by the adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR1). To evaluate the role of ADAR1 in MV infection, we selectively disrupted expression of the IFN-inducible p150 ADAR1 isoform and found it caused embryonic lethality at embryo day (E) 11-E12. We therefore generated p150-deficient and WT mouse embryo fibroblast (MEF) cells stably expressing the MV receptor signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM or CD150). The p150(-/-) but not WT MEF cells displayed extensive syncytium formation and cytopathic effect (CPE) following infection with MV, consistent with an anti-MV role of the p150 isoform of ADAR1. MV titers were 3 to 4 log higher in p150(-/-) cells compared with WT cells at 21 h postinfection, and restoration of ADAR1 in p150(-/-) cells prevented MV cytopathology. In contrast to infection with MV, p150 disruption had no effect on vesicular stomatitis virus, reovirus, or lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus replication but protected against CPE resulting from infection with Newcastle disease virus, Sendai virus, canine distemper virus, and influenza A virus. Thus, ADAR1 is a restriction factor in the replication of paramyxoviruses and orthomyxoviruses.

How well controlled are our type 2 diabetic patients in 2002? An observational study in North and Central Trinidad.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the proportion of diabetic patients that achieved glycemic control (HbA1c pound7.0%) and to explore some of the barriers to achieve this control. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, observational study. SETTING: Health centres in North and Central Trinidad. PATIENTS: One hundred and thirty-two type 2 diabetics attending the health centres for more than 1 year. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: HbA1c levels and the proportion of patients who achieve glycemic control, HbA1c pound7.0%. RESULTS: The patients were categorized into two groups: well controlled, HbA1c Y7.0% and poorly controlled, HbA1c>7.0%. The majority of patients were poorly controlled (55.3%), duration of diabetes impacted negatively older patients and patients attending the clinics for longer periods were less likely to be well controlled. There was no correlation between pharmacological treatment, availability of individual counselling by a dietician or regular monitoring of blood glucose and glycemic control (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: A 44.7% of patients with type 2 diabetes were found to be well controlled. Old age (51-70 years) and lengthy periods of attendance seem to be barriers to achieving glycemic control. This study highlights the fact that there is a need for re-evaluation of the diabetic program since despite changes in the primary care system over the past 5 years a large proportion of diabetics are still uncontrolled.

Functional analysis of the KCS-like element of the interferon-inducible RNA-specific adenosine deaminase ADAR1 promoter.

The ADAR1 gene encodes an RNA-specific adenosine deaminase that alters the functional activity of both viral and cellular RNAs by posttranscriptional adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing. The interferon (IFN) responsive PI promoter of the ADAR1 gene possesses an IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) responsible for IFN-inducibility, as well as an adjacent upstream sequence, designated kinase conserved sequence-like (KCS-l) element. The KCS-l element is similar to the 15-bp KCS element so far unique to the human and mouse RNA-dependent PKR kinase gene promoters. The KCS element of the PKR kinase (PKR) promoter is essential for both basal and IFN-inducible PKR promoter activity. We have now examined the functional properties of the KCS-l element of the ADAR1 PI promoter. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) detected constitutively expressed nuclear proteins that bound selectively to the ADAR1 KCS-l element. Competition EMSA and antibody supershift assays indicated that ADAR1 KCS-l-binding proteins shared some properties with PKR KCS-binding proteins. However, transient transfection analyses performed with ADAR1 PI promoter constructs possessing deletion and substitution mutant forms of the KCS-l element revealed that the ADAR1 KCS-l element was not essential for either basal or IFN-inducible promoter activity. Substitution of the ADAR1 KCS-l element with the PKR KCS element increased both basal and inducible ADAR1 PI promoter activity. These results suggest that the KCS-l element of the ADAR1 PI promoter is not functionally equivalent to the KCS element of the PKR promoter.

The promoter-proximal KCS element of the PKR kinase gene enhances transcription irrespective of orientation and position relative to the ISRE element and is functionally distinct from the KCS-like element of the ADAR deaminase Promoter.

The RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR promoter is interferon (IFN) inducible and possesses a novel 15-base pair (bp) constitutive activator element, designated kinase conserved sequence (KCS), in addition to an IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE). Deletion of the KCS element or point mutations within the KCS element greatly reduce both basal and IFN-inducible PKR promoter activity. The IFN-inducible RNA-specific adenosine deaminase ADAR1 promoter possesses a KCS-like (KCS-l) element. The sequences of the KCS and KCS-l elements and their positions relative to the cognate ISRE element are similar between the PKR and ADAR1 promoters. However, substitution of the ADAR1 KCS-l element for the KCS element of the PKR promoter resulted in significantly reduced basal and IFN-inducible promoter activities comparable to either point mutation or entire deletion of the PKR KCS element. The PKR KCS element selectively bound nuclear proteins more efficiently than did the ADAR1 KCS-l element. Reversing the positions of the KCS and ISRE elements of the PKR promoter relative to one another or reversing the orientation of either element while conserving the naturally occurring 4-bp spacing between the two elements did not significantly reduce basal or IFN-inducible promoter activity. Taken together, these results are consistent with the notion that the KCS and ISRE elements of the PKR promoter function as a unit.

Pre-clinical evaluation of a replication-competent recombinant adenovirus serotype 4 vaccine expressing influenza H5 hemagglutinin.

BACKGROUND: Influenza virus remains a significant health and social concern in part because of newly emerging strains, such as avian H5N1 virus. We have developed a prototype H5N1 vaccine using a recombinant, replication-competent Adenovirus serotype 4 (Ad4) vector, derived from the U.S. military Ad4 vaccine strain, to express the hemagglutinin (HA) gene from A/Vietnam/1194/2004 influenza virus (Ad4-H5-Vtn). Our hypothesis is that a mucosally-delivered replicating Ad4-H5-Vtn recombinant vector will be safe and induce protective immunity against H5N1 influenza virus infection and disease pathogenesis. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The Ad4-H5-Vtn vaccine was designed with a partial deletion of the E3 region of Ad4 to accommodate the influenza HA gene. Replication and growth kinetics of the vaccine virus in multiple human cell lines indicated that the vaccine virus is attenuated relative to the wild type virus. Expression of the HA transgene in infected cells was documented by flow cytometry, western blot analysis and induction of HA-specific antibody and cellular immune responses in mice. Of particular note, mice immunized intranasally with the Ad4-H5-Vtn vaccine were protected against lethal H5N1 reassortant viral challenge even in the presence of pre-existing immunity to the Ad4 wild type virus. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Several non-clinical attributes of this vaccine including safety, induction of HA-specific humoral and cellular immunity, and efficacy were demonstrated using an animal model to support Phase 1 clinical trial evaluation of this new vaccine.

Targeting expression of the leukemogenic PML-RARα fusion protein by lentiviral vector-mediated small interfering RNA results in leukemic cell differentiation and apoptosis.

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) results from a chromosomal translocation that gives rise to the leukemogenic fusion protein PML-RARα (promyelocytic leukemia-retinoic acid α receptor). Differentiation of leukemic cells and complete remission of APL are achieved by treatment of patients with pharmacological doses of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), making APL a model disease for differentiation therapy. However, because patients are resistant to further treatment with ATRA on relapse, it is necessary to develop alternative treatment strategies to specifically target APL. We therefore sought to develop a treatment strategy based on lentiviral vector-mediated delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA) that specifically targets the breakpoint region of PML-RARα. Unlike treatment with ATRA, which resulted in differentiation of leukemic NB4 cells, delivery of siRNA targeting PML-RARα into NB4 cells resulted in both differentiation and apoptosis, consistent with the specific knockdown of PML-RARα. Intraperitoneal injection of NB4 cells transduced with lentiviral vectors delivering PML-RARα-specific siRNA but not control siRNA prevented development of disease in nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) mice. Taken together, these results indicate that development of PML-RARα-specific siRNA may represent a promising treatment strategy for ATRA-resistant APL.

Activation of the RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR promoter in the absence of interferon is dependent upon Sp proteins.

The protein kinase regulated by RNA (PKR) is interferon (IFN)-inducible and plays important roles in many cellular processes, including virus multiplication, cell growth, and apoptosis. The TATA-less PKR promoter possesses a novel 15-bp DNA element (kinase conserved sequence (KCS)) unique to the human and mouse PKR genes that is conserved in sequence and position. We found that Sp1 and Sp3 of the Sp family of transcription factors bind at the KCS element. Their involvement was analyzed in the activation of basal and IFN-inducible PKR promoter activity. Both the small and large isoforms of Sp3 co-purified with KCS protein binding activity (KBP) by using nuclear extracts from HeLa cells not treated with IFN. Two forms of the KCS-binding protein complex were demonstrated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay analysis; one contained Sp1 and the other Sp3. In mouse cells null for all Sp3 isoforms, PKR expression was reduced to approximately 50% that of wild-type cells in the absence of IFN. The IFN-inducible expression of PKR, however, was Sp3-independent but STAT1- and JAK1-dependent. Overexpression of Sp1 in human U cells resulted in increased PKR promoter activity. In Drosophila SL2 cells lacking Sp proteins, both Sp1 and Sp3 large but not small isoforms activated PKR promoter expression, with the Sp1-mediated activation dominant. Mutational analysis of the PKR promoter region indicated a cooperative interaction between two different Sp sites, one of which is within the KCS element. These results establish that, in the absence of IFN treatment, activation of PKR basal expression is mediated by Sp1 and Sp3 proteins in a cooperative manner.

Transforming growth factor beta regulates the expression of the M2 muscarinic receptor in atrial myocytes via an effect on RhoA and p190RhoGAP.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) signaling is involved in the development and regulation of multiple organ systems and cellular signaling pathways. We recently demonstrated that TGFbeta regulates the response of atrial myocytes to parasympathetic stimulation. Here, TGFbeta(1) is shown to inhibit expression of the M(2) muscarinic receptor (M(2)), which plays a critical role in the parasympathetic response of the heart. This effect is mimicked by overexpression of a dominant negative mutant of RhoA and by the RhoA kinase inhibitor Y27632, whereas adenoviral expression of a dominant activating-RhoA reverses TGFbeta inhibition of M(2) expression. TGFbeta(1) also mediates a decrease in GTP-bound RhoA and a reciprocal increase in the expression of the RhoA GTPase-activating protein, p190RhoGAP, whereas total RhoA is unchanged. Inhibition of M(2) promoter activity by TGFbeta(1) is mimicked by overexpression of p190RhoGAP, whereas a dominant negative mutant of p190RhoGAP reverses this effect of TGFbeta(1). In contrast to atrial myocytes, in mink lung epithelial cells, in which TGFbeta signaling through activation of RhoA has been previously identified, TGFbeta(1) stimulated an increase in GTP-bound RhoA in association with a reciprocal decrease in the expression of p190RhoGAP. Both effects demonstrated a similar dose dependence on TGFbeta(1). Thus TGFbeta regulation of M(2) muscarinic receptor expression is dependent on RhoA, and TGFbeta regulation of p190RhoGAP expression may be a cell type-specific mechanism for TGFbeta signaling through RhoA.

Regulation of the interferon-inducible PKR kinase gene: the KCS element is a constitutive promoter element that functions in concert with the interferon-stimulated response element.

The RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR plays important roles in the antiviral and antiproliferative actions of IFN. The IFN-inducible promoter of the human PKR gene contains a 15-bp DNA element designated KCS. The KCS element is located 4 bp upstream of the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) and is required for both basal and IFN-inducible transcription. We have examined the effect of insertion mutations between the KCS and the ISRE elements, as well as altered orientation of the KCS element relative to the ISRE element, to assess a possible functional interaction between them. Large insertions (>or=93 bp) between the KCS and ISRE elements significantly reduced both basal and IFN-inducible promoter activity. The function of the KCS element was dependent on the orientation of KCS relative to the ISRE element. Multimerization of the KCS element increased both basal and IFN-inducible transcription. Electrophoretic mobility shift analyses (EMSA) identified IFN-inducible protein complex formation that required both the KCS and the ISRE DNA element sequences. The novel IFN-inducible protein complexes contained the transcription factor STAT1, as shown by supershift analyses and by their presence in extracts prepared from STAT1 wild-type but not from STAT1-/- null cells. These results, taken together, strongly suggest that the KCS and ISRE elements of the human PKR promoter represent a functional unit.

The PKR kinase promoter binds both Sp1 and Sp3, but only Sp3 functions as part of the interferon-inducible complex with ISGF-3 proteins.

The protein kinase regulated by RNA (PKR) is an important mediator of the antiviral and antiproliferative actions of interferon (IFN). The promoter of the PKR gene contains a novel 15-bp element designated KCS that is required for both basal and IFN-inducible transcription, with KCS function dependent upon both position and orientation relative to the ISRE element. Novel inducible protein complexes (iKIBP1, iKIBP2) that require both the KCS and the ISRE element sequences for their formation have been identified and characterized. Transcription factors Sp1 and Sp3 were found to be KCS-binding proteins by electrophoretic mobility shift analyses (EMSA) and Sepharose bead-KCS oligonucleotide pull-down assays. However, only Sp3 but not Sp1 was a constituent of the inducible iKIBP complexes. EMSA also identified STAT1, STAT2, and IRF-9 as components of the iKIBP complexes, indicating that ISGF-3 participates in iKIBP complex formation. Proteins bound at the KCS element in the absence of ISRE were able to recruit both STAT1 and STAT2 to the KCS element; recruitment was dependent upon IFN-alpha treatment. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed that the binding of Sp3, similar to STAT1 and STAT2, at the PKR promoter in vivo was IFN-dependent, but that Sp1 binding was not dependent upon IFN treatment. These results, taken together, strongly suggest a role for Sp1 in basal and Sp3 in inducible transcription of PKR and that a potential function of the KCS element is to facilitate the recruitment of ISGF-3 complex components to the PKR promoter to stimulate transcription.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta ) signaling via differential activation of activin receptor-like kinases 2 and 5 during cardiac development. Role in regulating parasympathetic responsiveness.

Little is known regarding factors that induce parasympathetic responsiveness during cardiac development. We demonstrated previously that in atrial cells cultured from chicks 14 days in ovo, transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) decreased parasympathetic inhibition of beat rate by the muscarinic agonist, carbamylcholine, by 5-fold and decreased expression of Galpha(i2). Here in atrial cells 5 days in ovo, TGFbeta increased carbamylcholine inhibition of beat rate 2.5-fold and increased expression of Galpha(i2). TGFbeta also stimulated Galpha(i2) mRNA expression and promoter activity at day 5 while inhibiting them at day 14 in ovo. Over the same time course expression of type I TGFbeta receptors, chick activin receptor-like kinase 2 and 5 increased with a 2.3-fold higher increase in activin receptor-like kinase 2. Constitutively active activin receptor-like kinase 2 inhibited Galpha(i2) promoter activity, whereas constitutively active activin receptor-like kinase 5 stimulated Galpha(i2) promoter activity independent of embryonic age. In 5-day atrial cells, TGFbeta stimulated the p3TP-lux reporter, which is downstream of activin receptor-like kinase 5 and had no effect on the activity of the pVent reporter, which is downstream of activin receptor-like kinase 2. In 14-day cells, TGFbeta stimulated both pVent and p3TP-lux. Thus TGFbeta exerts opposing effects on parasympathetic response and Galpha(i2) expression by activating different type I TGFbeta receptors at distinct stages during cardiac development.

DNA damage-binding proteins and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 function as constitutive KCS element components of the interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase promoter.

Protein kinase regulated by RNA (PKR) plays important roles in many cellular processes including virus multiplication and cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. The promoter of the PKR gene possesses a novel 15-bp element designated KCS, positioned upstream of a consensus interferon (IFN)-stimulated response element, that is required for both basal and interferon-inducible transcription. Protein binding to the KCS element is not dependent upon IFN treatment and correlates with transcriptional activity of the PKR promoter. The identity of KCS-binding proteins (KBP) that selectively bind at the KCS element is largely unknown, except for the transcription factor Sp1. We now have purified KBP from HeLa cell nuclear extracts by ion-exchange and DNA-affinity chromatography steps and then identified four constituent proteins of the KBP complex by mass spectrometry and immunochemistry: KBP120 and KBP45 are the damaged DNA-binding protein subunits, p127 DDB1 and p48 DDB2, respectively; KBP100 is the transcription factor Sp1; and KBP35 is the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1. The steady-state levels of these four KCS-binding proteins in human cells are not altered by IFN treatment. Components of the KBP complex bind selectively and constitutively to the KCS element in the absence of IFN treatment, both in vitro as measured by competition electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and DNA pull-down assays and in vivo as measured by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. Depletion of DDB2 by antisense strategy reduces KBP complex formation by EMSA. These results provide new insight into the biochemical identity and activity of proteins involved in PKR promoter function.

Dispersion of the third-order nonlinear optical properties of an organometallic dendrimer(1).

The dispersion of cubic nonlinearity in the organometallic dendrimer 1,3,5-(3,5-{trans-[(dppe)2(4-O2NC6H4CC)RuCC]}2C6H3CCC6H4-4-CC)3C6H3 can be understood in terms of an interplay of two-photon absorption and absorption saturation. Simple dispersion relations reproduce the behavior of both the real and imaginary components of the hyperpolarizability.

TGFbeta regulates the expression of G alpha(i2) via an effect on the localization of ras.

The negative chronotropic response of the heart to parasympathetic stimulation is mediated via the interaction of M(2) muscarinic receptors, Galpha(i2) and the G-protein coupled inward rectifying K(+) channel, GIRK1. Here TGFbeta(1) is shown to decrease the expression of Galpha(i2) in cultured chick atrial cells in parallel with attenuation of the negative chronotropic response to parasympathetic stimulation. The response to the acetylcholine analogue, carbamylcholine, decreased from a 95+/-2% (+/-SEM, n=8) inhibition of beat rate in control cells to 18+/-2% (+/-SEM,n =8) in TGFbeta(1) treated cells. Data support the conclusion that TGFbeta regulation of Galpha(i2) expression was mediated via an effect on Ras. TGFbeta(1) inhibited Galpha(i2) promoter activity by 56+/-6% (+/-SEM, n=4) compared to control. A dominant activating Ras mutant reversed the effect of TGFbeta on Galpha(i2) expression and stimulated Galpha(i2) promoter activity 1.7 fold above control. A dominant negative Ras mutant mimicked the effect of TGFbeta(1) on Galpha(i2) promoter activity. TGFbeta had no effect on the ratio of GDP/GTP bound Ras, but markedly decreased the level of membrane associated Ras and increased the level of cytoplasmic Ras compared to control. Furthermore, farnesol, a precursor to farnesylpyrophosphate, the substrate for the farnesylation of Ras, not only reversed TGFbeta(1) inhibition of Ras localization to the membrane, but also reversed TGFbeta(1) inhibition of Galpha(i2)promoter activity. FTI-277, a specific inhibitor of the farnesylation of Ras, mimicked the effect of TGFbeta(1) on Ras localization and Galpha(i2) promoter activity. These data suggest a novel relationship between TGFbeta signaling, regulation of Ras function and the autonomic response of the heart.