Do conversations end when people want them to?

Do conversations end when people want them to? Surprisingly, behavioral science provides no answer to this fundamental question about the most ubiquitous of all human social activities. In two studies of 932 conversations, we asked conversants to report when they had wanted a conversation to end and to estimate when their partner (who was an intimate in Study 1 and a stranger in Study 2) had wanted it to end. Results showed that conversations almost never ended when both conversants wanted them to and rarely ended when even one conversant wanted them to and that the average discrepancy between desired and actual durations was roughly half the duration of the conversation. Conversants had little idea when their partners wanted to end and underestimated how discrepant their partners' desires were from their own. These studies suggest that ending conversations is a classic "coordination problem" that humans are unable to solve because doing so requires information that they normally keep from each other. As a result, most conversations appear to end when no one wants them to.

Tips From the Top: Do the Best Performers Really Give the Best Advice?

Everyone knows that if you want to learn how to do something, you should get advice from people who do it well. But is everyone right? In a series of studies (N = 8,693), adult participants played a game after receiving performance advice from previous participants. Although advice from the best-performing advisors was no more beneficial than advice from other advisors, participants believed that it had been-and they believed this despite the fact that they were told nothing about their advisors' performance. Why? The best performers did not give better advice, but they did give more of it, and participants apparently mistook quantity for quality. These studies suggest that performing and advising may often be unrelated skills and that in at least some domains, people may overvalue advice from top performers.

"I'll try the veggie burger": Increasing purchases of sustainable foods with information about sustainability and taste.

Food production--especially raising animals for meat--has a massive negative impact on the environment and contributes to global warming. To address this, we investigated whether information about food sustainability would increase purchases of sustainable foods by patrons of university cafés. In Study 1, patrons were randomly assigned either to see a menu that had sustainability labels indicating the degree of environmental impact of each item, or to see a menu without labels. Women who saw the labels were significantly more likely to purchase sustainable foods, whereas men were not influenced by the labels. In Study 2 we targeted one sustainable menu item (a veggie burger) and, in a 2 (sustainability) x 2 (taste) design, varied whether patrons learned that the veggie burger was especially sustainable or especially tasty. Women were significantly more likely to purchase the veggie burger if they learned it was sustainable or tasty, but again, the manipulations had no effect on men. We discuss why women are more likely to change their food choices to eat more sustainably than are men.

Comparison of Magnetic Resonance Angiography and Computed Tomography Angiography Stereoscopic Cerebral Vascular Models.

In this paper, we will discuss and compare the stereoscopic models developed from two types of radiographic data, Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) images and Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) images. Stereoscopic models were created using surface or volume segmentation and semi-auto combined segmentation techniques. Although, the CTA data were found to improve the speed and quality of constructing virtual vascular models compared to conventional CT data, small blood vessels were difficult to capture during the imaging and reconstruction process thereby limiting the fidelity of the stereoscopic models. Thus, high contrast Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) images offer better resolution to visualize and capture the smaller branches of the cerebral vasculature than CTA images.

When fairness matters less than we expect.

Do those who allocate resources know how much fairness will matter to those who receive them? Across seven studies, allocators used either a fair or unfair procedure to determine which of two receivers would receive the most money. Allocators consistently overestimated the impact that the fairness of the allocation procedure would have on the happiness of receivers (studies 1-3). This happened because the differential fairness of allocation procedures is more salient before an allocation is made than it is afterward (studies 4 and 5). Contrary to allocators' predictions, the average receiver was happier when allocated more money by an unfair procedure than when allocated less money by a fair procedure (studies 6 and 7). These studies suggest that when allocators are unable to overcome their own preallocation perspectives and adopt the receivers' postallocation perspectives, they may allocate resources in ways that do not maximize the net happiness of receivers.

Buccal injection of articaine to anesthetize the palatal mucosa.

Buccal and palatal injections are required for administration of anesthetic agents before maxillary tooth extractions, but palatal injections are painful for patients. Studies suggest that the palatal injection can be eliminated when articaine is delivered as a local anesthetic agent via buccal injection, but the anatomical mechanism for this effectiveness remains unclear. The objective of this study was to explore the potential mechanism by which buccal infiltration results in palatal anesthesia. The study approach included examining cadaveric specimens and investigating the pharmacologic properties of articaine. Twenty-eight formalin-fixed cadaveric hemimaxillae were dissected and sectioned into anterior, premolar, and molar regions. The maxillary sections were measured in 3 planes: inferior, middle, and superior. Buccal cortical plate (BCP), palatal cortical plate (PCP), and total buccopalatal (TBP) thickness were independently evaluated by 2 measurers using standard digital calipers. Statistical analysis of regional maxillary thickness measurements was achieved via 2-way analysis of variance. Measurements of BCP and PCP thickness revealed no statistically significant differences along the maxillae (P > 0.05). Both the BCP and PCP mean values were significantly less than the TBP measurement (P < 0.0001). In all 3 regions, the mean TBP thickness in the superior plane was significantly greater than that of the inferior plane (P < 0.05). The mean TBP thickness was significantly greater in the molar and premolar regions than in the anterior region (P < 0.05). The mean BCP measurements were significantly lesser in the maxillary premolar and molar regions than in the corresponding mandibular regions (P < 0.0001). The pharmacologic properties of articaine, which is capable of diffusing greater distances than other local anesthetics, coupled with the uniformly thin, cancellous maxillary bone, provide a plausible explanation for the success of palatal anesthesia achieved through buccal infiltration of articaine, obviating the need for a palatal injection.

The relationship between spatial ability, cerebral blood flow and learning with dynamic images: A transcranial Doppler ultrasonography study.

Determining the effect of dynamic images on learning is often limited to performance measures. This study explores the impact from the perspective of cerebral blood flow in the brain during learning. Performance and neurophysiological response in high and low spatial ability were compared during learning with dynamic images. Individuals with high spatial ability appear to be better suited to learn with complex images such as dynamic images that move in time and space. The results presented here suggest that spatial ability can help to determine the effectiveness of the media we use for teaching.

The Novelty Penalty.

People often tell each other stories about their past experiences. But do they tell the right ones? Speakers and listeners predicted that listeners would enjoy hearing novel stories (i.e., stories about experiences the listeners had never had) more than familiar stories (i.e., stories about experiences the listeners had already had). In fact, listeners enjoyed hearing familiar stories much more than novel ones (Studies 1 and 2). This did not happen because the familiar and novel stories differed in their content or delivery (Study 3). Rather, it happened because human speech is riddled with informational gaps, and familiar stories allow listeners to use their own knowledge to fill in those gaps (Study 4). We discuss reasons why novel stories are more difficult to tell, and why familiar stories are more enjoyable to hear, than either speakers or listeners expect.

Anatomy of the proximal tibiofibular joint and interosseous membrane, and their contributions to joint kinematics in below-knee amputations.

A result of below-knee amputations (BKAs) is abnormal motion that occurs about the proximal tibiofibular joint (PTFJ). While it is known that joint morphology may play a role in joint kinematics, this is not well understood with respect to the PTFJ. Therefore, the purposes of this study were: (i) to characterize the anatomy of the PTFJ and statistically analyze the relationships within the joint; and (ii) to determine the relationships between the PTFJ characteristics and the degree of movement of the fibula in BKAs. The PTFJ was characterized in 40 embalmed specimens disarticulated at the knee, and amputated through the mid-tibia and fibula. Four metrics were measured: inclination angle (angle at which the fibula articulates with the tibia); tibial and fibular articular surface areas; articular surface concavity and shape. The specimens were mechanically tested by applying a load through the biceps femoris tendon, and the degree of motion about the tibiofibular joint was measured. Regression analyses were performed to determine the relationships between the different PTFJ characteristics and the magnitude of fibular abduction. Finally, Pearson correlation analyses were performed on inclination angle and surface area vs. fibular kinematics. The inclination angle measured on the fibula was significantly greater than that measured on the tibia. This difference may be attributed to differences in concavity of the tibial and fibular surfaces. Surface area measured on the tibia and fibula was not statistically different. The inclination angle was not statistically correlated to surface area. However, when correlating fibular kinematics in BKAs, inclination angle was positively correlated to the degree of fibular abduction, whereas surface area was negatively correlated. The characteristics of the PTFJ dictate the amount of fibular movement, specifically, fibular abduction in BKAs. Predicting BKA complications based on PTFJ characteristics can lead to recommendations in treatment.

A three-dimensional measurement approach for the morphology of the femoral head.

The hip joint is one of the most frequent sites of osteoarthritis. Advances in diagnosis and clinical treatment have progressed dramatically in the last few decades; however, there are limitations associated with the lack of reliable measures for quantifying hip joint morphology. Current diagnostic measures of the hip are performed with pre-determined measures, typically lengths and angles, on 2D radiographic planes. The current measurement techniques do not utilize the inherent 3D nature of CT and MR imaging and do not necessarily quantify the relevant clinical pathologies. A valid and reliable measurement modality that measures the surface geometry of the femoral head is necessary for early diagnosis and treatment of hip disease. The purpose of this study was to establish a method to quantify femoral head morphology using a three-dimensional model. A novel measurement approach was applied to 45 cadaveric femurs (23 right; 22 left; nine female, 17 male) and their digitally reconstructed 3D CT models. The mean difference between the cadaveric and digital measures was -2.04 mm with 95% confidence limits (CI) of 13.67 mm and -17.75 mm, respectively. The digital measurement approach was found to have excellent intraobserver reliability (ICC = 0.99, CI 0.98-0.99) and interobserver reliability (ICC = 0.98, CI 0.93-0.99). This valid and reliable novel digital measurement approach enables quantification of the 3D surface geometry of the femoral head and is able to measure individual variations and potentially detect abnormalities. This method may be used to assist future studies to establish valid diagnostic measurements for femoral head and head-neck junction pathologies.

The unforeseen costs of extraordinary experience.

People seek extraordinary experiences--from drinking rare wines and taking exotic vacations to jumping from airplanes and shaking hands with celebrities. But are such experiences worth having? We found that participants thoroughly enjoyed having experiences that were superior to those had by their peers, but that having had such experiences spoiled their subsequent social interactions and ultimately left them feeling worse than they would have felt if they had had an ordinary experience instead. Participants were able to predict the benefits of having an extraordinary experience but were unable to predict the costs. These studies suggest that people may pay a surprising price for the experiences they covet most.

Determining position of the inferior alveolar nerve via anatomical dissection and micro-computed tomography in preparation for dental implants.

BACKGROUND: The inferior alveolar nerve courses anteriorly within the mandibular canal, providing sensory nerve supply to the mandibular teeth, the buccal mucosa, the gingiva, and the soft tissues of the lower lip and chin. To avoid damage to this nerve and resulting sensory disturbances, its exact location must be known before placement of a dental implant. Imaging modalities currently used to visualize the position of the inferior alveolar nerve may be inaccurate. This study was undertaken to determine the accuracy of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) for determining the position of this nerve. METHODS: Micro-CT images of 16 cadaveric hemimandibles were acquired at a slice thickness of 154 µm. Each hemimandible was then sectioned at 6 predetermined locations between the ramus and the mental foramen, to yield 5 corticocancellous bone specimens. The superior, inferior, buccal and lingual distances for bone surrounding the mandibular canal were measured by direct digital caliper and compared with corresponding micro-CT measurements obtained by 3-dimensional visualization and modelling software. RESULTS: There was substantial variability in the vertical position of the inferior alveolar nerve, depending on the length of time since tooth loss and the movement of the nerve from the lingual to buccal position as it courses from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the mandible. However, digital caliper and corresponding micro-CT measurements of the thickness of bone surrounding the inferior alveolar nerve were highly consistent, and no significant differences were detected between the two methods of measurement. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The findings reported here confirm the accuracy of micro-CT in determining the location of the inferior alveolar nerve during planning for placement of dental implants in the human mandible.

An interactive program to conceptualize the anatomy of the internal brainstem in 3D.

Neuroanatomy is a complex sub-discipline of anatomy requiring abstract visualization and strong spatial reasoning. Traditional methods of learning neuroanatomy include investigation using dissection, light microscopy and histology. Often, this pedagogical approach requires students to formulate three-dimensional (3D) mental images from sequential two-dimensional (2D) cross-sections, which can be difficult for many students to conceptualize. The goal of this study is to develop an interactive 3D learning tool of the internal brainstem anatomy and assess its efficacy on student learning against the classical methods of learning neuroanatomy. Results reveal that students the amount of learning was equal between both experimental groups. Qualitative results show that students enjoyed interactive learning and warmly welcomed the 3D program. Future neuroanatomy laboratories may include a 3D component to aid in student conceptualization of internal brainstem anatomy.

Do our hands see what our eyes see? Investigating spatial and haptic abilities.

Spatial abilities (SAs) are cognitive resources used to mentally manipulate representations of objects to solve problems. Haptic abilities (HAs) represent tactile interactions with real-world objects transforming somatic information into mental representations. Both are proposed to be factors in anatomy education, yet relationships between SAs and HAs remain unknown. The objective of the current study was to explore SA-HA interactions. A haptic ability test (HAT) was developed based on the mental rotations test (MRT) with three-dimensional (3D) objects. The HAT was undertaken in three sensory conditions: (1) sighted, (2) sighted with haptics, and (3) haptics. Participants (n = 22; 13 females, 9 males) completed the MRT and were categorized into high spatial abilities (HSAs) (n = 12, mean± standard deviation: 13.7 ± 3.0) and low spatial abilities (LSAs) (n = 10, 5.6 ± 2.0) based on score distributions about the overall mean. Each SA group's HAT scores were compared across the three sensory conditions. Spearman's correlation coefficients between MRT and HAT scores indicated a statistically significant correlation in sighted condition (r = 0.553, p = 0.015) but were not significant in the sighted with haptics (r = 0.0.078, p = 0.212) and haptics (r = 0.043, p = 0.279) conditions. These data suggest HAs appear unrelated to SAs. With haptic exploration, LSA HAT scores were compensated; comparing HSA with LSA: sighted with haptics [median (lower and upper quartiles): 12 (12,13) vs. 12 (11,13), p = 0.254], and haptics [12 (11,13) vs. 12 (10,12), p = 0.381] conditions. Migrations to online anatomy teaching may unwittingly remove important sensory modalities from the learner. Understanding learner behaviors and performance when haptic inputs are removed from the learning environment represents valuable insight informing future anatomy curriculum and resource development.

Speak Up! Mistaken Beliefs About How Much to Talk in Conversations.

We hypothesized that people would exhibit a reticence bias, the incorrect belief that they will be more likable if they speak less than half the time in a conversation with a stranger, as well as halo ignorance, the belief that their speaking time should depend on their goal (e.g., to be liked vs. to be found interesting), when in fact, perceivers form global impressions of each other. In Studies 1 and 2, participants forecasted they should speak less than half the time when trying to be liked, but significantly more when trying to be interesting. In Study 3, we tested the accuracy of these forecasts by randomly assigning participants to speak for 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, or 70% of the time in a dyadic conversation. Contrary to people's forecasts, they were more likable the more they spoke, and their partners formed global rather than differentiated impressions.

Evaluation of neuroanatomical training using a 3D visual reality model.

As one of the more difficult components of any curricula, neuroanatomy poses many challenges to students - not only because of the numerous discrete structures, but also due to the complicated spatial relations between them, which must be learned. Traditional anatomical education uses 2D images with a focus on dissection. This approach tends to underestimate the cognitive leaps required between textbook, lecture, and dissection cases. With reduced anatomical teaching time available, and varying student spatial abilities, new techniques are needed for training. The goal of this study is to assess the improvement of trainee understanding of 3D brain anatomy, orientation, visualization, and navigation through the use of digital training regimes in comparison with current methods. Two subsets of health science and medical students were tested individually after being given a group lecture and either a pre- or post-dissection digital lab. Results suggest that exposure to a 3D digital lab may improve knowledge acquisition and understanding by the students, particularly for first time learners.

What is social psychology? The construal principle.

Standard definitions of social psychology, such as "the study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people" (Aronson et al., 2019, p. 3), fail to capture much of what social psychologists actually do and do not capture the basic theoretical foundations of the field. I suggest the field is founded on the construal principle, which holds that to understand and predict human behavior, one must focus on people's proximate (current) construals of themselves and their environment. The construal principle empowers social psychology in three key ways: It (a) accounts for the power of the situation, by acknowledging that construals are highly attuned to social norms; (b) is amenable to study with the experimental method; and (c) provides a unique theoretical framework for how to change human behavior. I discuss the origins and implications of the construal principle and how it distinguishes social psychology from related subdisciplines, including evolutionary social psychology, personality psychology, and social neuroscience. Whereas each subdiscipline is good at accomplishing the tasks it has set for itself, social psychology has unique advantages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Learning in Stereo: The Relationship Between Spatial Ability and 3D Digital Anatomy Models.

Three-dimensional (3D) digital anatomical models show potential to demonstrate complex anatomical relationships; however, the literature is inconsistent as to whether they are effective in improving the anatomy performance, particularly for students with low spatial visualization ability (Vz). This study investigated the educational effectiveness of a 3D stereoscopic model of the pelvis, and the relationship between learning with 3D models and Vz. It was hypothesized that participants learning with a 3D pelvis model would outperform participants learning with a two-dimensional (2D) visualization or cadaveric specimen on a spatial anatomy test, particularly when comparing those with low Vz. Participants (n = 64) were stratified into three experimental groups, who each attended a learning session with either a 3D stereoscopic model (n = 21), 2D visualization (n = 21), or cadaveric specimen (n = 22) of the pelvis. Medical and pre-medical student participants completed a multiple-choice pre-test and post-test during their respective learning session, and a long-term retention (LTR) test 2 months later. Results showed no difference in anatomy test improvement or LTR performance between the experimental groups. A simple linear regression analysis showed that within the 3D group, participants with high Vz tended to retain more than those with low Vz on the LTR test (R2  = 0.31, P = 0.01). The low Vz participants may be cognitively overloaded by the complex spatial cues from the 3D stereoscopic model. Results of this study should inform resource selection and curriculum design for health professional students, with attention to the impact of Vz on learning.

A trade-off model of intentional thinking for pleasure.

We investigated intentional thinking for pleasure, defined as the deliberate attempt to have pleasant thoughts while disengaged from the external world. We propose a Trade-Off model that explains when and why thinking for pleasure is enjoyable: People focus on personally meaningful thoughts when thinking for pleasure (especially when prompted to do so), which increases their enjoyment, but they find it difficult to concentrate on their thoughts, which decreases their enjoyment. Thus, the net enjoyment of thinking for pleasure is a trade-off between its benefits (personal meaningfulness) and costs (difficulty concentrating). To test the model, we compared intentional thinking for pleasure to four alternate activities in three studies. Thinking for pleasure was more enjoyable than undirected thinking (Study 1) and planning (Study 3), because it was more meaningful than these activities while requiring a similar level of concentration. Thinking for pleasure was just as enjoyable as playing a video game (Study 2) or unprompted idle time activities (Study 3), but for different reasons: It was more meaningful than these activities, but required more concentration. We discuss the implications of these findings for what people might choose to do during idle times. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).