Potential environmental toxicity of sewage effluent with pharmaceuticals.

Sewage effluent effects on the biochemical parameters of Astyanax bimaculatus organs were investigateted. Treated sewage was collected in a treatment plant; 43 compounds, among them, pharmaceuticals and hormones, were investigated. Caffeine, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, ofloxacin, oxytetracycline, paracetamol, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfathiazole and tylosin waste was detected in the collected material. Fish were divided into four groups: control, TSE (treated sewage effluent), TSE + P (TSE with increased concentration of five pharmaceuticals) and PTSE (TSE + P post-treated with O3/H2O2/UV). Biochemical parameters were evaluated in different organs after 14-day exposure. TBARS levels increased significantly in the brain of animals in the TSE and TSE + P groups in comparison to the control. There was significant reduction in TBARS levels recorded for the liver, muscle and gills of animals in the PTSE group in comparison to those of animals in the other groups. AChE activity reduced in the muscle of animals in the groups showing the highest pharmaceutical concentrations. CAT activity in the liver of animals in groups exposed to pharmaceutical effluent was inhibited. GST activity increased in brain of animals in the TSE + P and PTSE groups, whereas reduced levels of this activity were observed in liver of animals in the TSE group. Increased GST activity was observed in the brain of animals in TSE + P and PTSE groups. Based on integrated biomarker response values, the TSE + P group presented greater changes in the analyzed parameters. Results point out that pharmaceutical waste can cause oxidative stress, as well as affect biochemical and enzymatic parameters in Astyanax sp. Post-treatment can also reduce damages caused to fish, even in case of the likely formation of metabolites. Based on these results, these metabolites can be less toxic than the original compounds; however, they were not able to fully degrade the pharmaceutical waste found in the sewage, which can interfere in fish metabolism.

Performance of an electrocoagulation-flotation system in the treatment of domestic wastewater for urban reuse.

Domestic wastewater is an important alternative source of water in the face of a growing discrepancy between water availability and demand. The use of techniques that enable the urban reuse of treated sewage is essential to make cities more sustainable and resilient to water scarcity. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the performance of an electrocoagulation-flotation system in the treatment of domestic wastewater for urban reuse. The study was performed using raw domestic wastewater samples. The electrocoagulation-flotation system was a cylindrical reactor with aluminum electrodes. The treatment conditions involved agitation at 262.5 rpm, electrical current of 1.65 A, electrolysis time of 25 min, an initial pH of 6, and inter-electrode distance of 1 cm. Overall, the electrocoagulation-flotation system was highly efficient for removal of apparent color (97.9%), chemical oxygen demand (82.9%), turbidity (95.8%), and orthophosphate phosphorous (> 98.2%). The electrocoagulation-flotation system had a consumption of electrical energy ranging from 9.5 to 13.3 kWh m-3, electrode mass from 294.7 to 557.0 g m-3, and hydrochloric acid from 4.3 to 6.6 L m-3. Sludge production in the system ranged from 1,125.7 to 1,835.7 g m-3. Treated wastewater had a satisfactory quality for several urban reuse activities. The electrocoagulation-flotation system showed potential to be used for domestic wastewater treatment for urban reuse purposes.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals in effluent and sludge from a wastewater treatment plant in Brazil.

A wide variety of pharmaceuticals are discharged in water courses on a daily basis due to their incomplete removal from effluent in treatment plants. The aim of the current study was to assess the occurrence, fate and removal of pharmaceuticals from effluent and sludge samples collected in the biggest sanitary sewer plant in Southern Brazil. In total, 13 pharmaceuticals were detected in the influent through UHPLC-MS/M - paracetamol and caffeine recorded the highest concentrations, 137.98 and 35.29 µg L-1, respectively. The treated effluent presented 11 compounds. Antibiotics were the class recording the widest diversity; metronidazole showed the lowest concentration (0.023 µg L-1) and sulfamethoxazole presented the highest concentration (1.374 µg L-1) in influent samples. Seven pharmaceuticals were absorbed by the sludge; among them, one finds caffeine, ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin, which were quantified both in the effluent and in the sludge. On the other hand, doxycycline, fenbendazole, norfloxacin and tetracycline were only detected in sludge samples - their concentrations ranged from 0.026 to 5.034 mg kg-1. Clindamycin, oxytetracycline, sulfathiazole and trimethoprim concentrations increased throughout the treatment. There were high paracetamol and caffeine removal rates (>97%), and it may have happened due to degradation, photodegradation or chemical reaction. Ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin removal rate exceeded 83% mainly due to their sorption by sludge. Finally, the mass balance analysis highlighted high pharmaceutical loads (511.466 g d-1) discharged into recipient waterbodies. This outcome demands broadening the removal of these pharmaceuticals from sewage.

Optimization of an electrocoagulation-flotation system for domestic wastewater treatment and reuse.

The risks inherent to the inadequate domestic wastewater disposal, allied to the water growing demand, scarcity, and pollution problems, have highlighted the importance of adopting treatment techniques that not only target the sewage discharge, but also its reuse. For this reason, the objective of this study was to evaluate the best conditions of an electrocoagulation-flotation system for domestic wastewater treatment and urban reuse. To achieve this, an effects study followed by two rotatable central composite experimental designs 2² was performed, considering: agitation, electrical current, electrolysis time, inter-electrodes distance, and initial pH. The electrocoagulation-flotation system was composed of a cylindrical acrylic reactor with a working volume of 1 L, with two aluminium electrodes connected to a direct-current power supply. Results showed that electrical current and electrolysis time were the most influent operational parameters on domestic wastewater treatment in the electrocoagulation-flotation system. The initial pH adjustment was also important due the pH increase tendency observed in the results. The best conditions of agitation, inter-electrodes distance, electrolysis time, electrical current, and initial pH for domestic wastewater treatment and urban reuse were 262.5 rpm, 1 cm, 25 min, 1.65 A, and 6, respectively. Under these conditions, turbidity and colour removals higher than 98% and 92% were reached respectively, as well as residual turbidity lower than 6 NTU and final pH of 8 were achieved, following the Brazilian standards and guidelines for urban reuse. Thus, the electrocoagulation-flotation system studied was effective for domestic wastewater treatment and reuse for urban supply purposes.

Recycled and virgin plastic carriers in hybrid reactors for wastewater treatment.

The reduction of organic and nitrogen pollution of wastewater was investigated in two hybrid reactors and compared with the reduction obtained by using a conventional activated sludge reactor (ASR) run as a control. Both HR-1 and HR-2 were activated sludge systems where a low-density carrier, P1 (polyethylene) for HR-1 and P2 (recycled plastics) for HR-2, was added. Firstly, the three reactors were operated at 10 days Suspended Solid Retention Time (SRT(SS)), leading to a complete nitrification. Secondly, the SRT(SS) for each reactor was lowered to 3 days. Nitrification was lost for the ASR but remained complete for HR's. Respirometric techniques were used to measure fixed or suspended biomass activities for heterotrophic and autotrophic biomass. More than 90% of the autotrophic activity was found on the supports whatever the SRT(SS) used. The results may underline the role of the carrier geometry or surface characteristics on the autotrophic/heterotrophic microorganism distribution.

Eletrocoagulação como pós-tratamento do efluente de um wetland construído de escoamento vertical / Electrocoagulation as post-treatment of the effluent from a vertical flow constructed wetland

RESUMO A eletrocoagulação (EC) foi aplicada como tratamento terciário para o efluente de wetland construído de escoamento vertical (WCV). O sistema de EC compreendeu um reator cilíndrico de vidro (1 L) e eletrodos de alumínio conectados a uma fonte de alimentação de corrente contínua. O estudo foi desenvolvido em duas etapas. Na primeira, as condições operacionais do reator foram delimitadas por meio de um experimento bifatorial 32 (3×3) de natureza quantitativa × quantitativa, analisando intensidade de corrente e tempo. Com base nos resultados obtidos, a regressão linear resultou na combinação de 1,3 A e 18 min, com custo operacional elétrico de 2,71 R$.m−3. Em seguida, realizou-se a etapa de monitoramento durante quatro meses, aplicando a EC sob essas condições fixas estabelecidas. As eficiências médias de remoção alcançadas foram de 99,7% para P-PO43-, 20,6% para N-NO3−, 2,37 log de coliformes totais, 2,35 log de Escherichia coli, 84,9% para demanda química de oxigênio, 95% para turbidez, 95,1% para cor aparente, aumento de 19% no pH, de 18,6% na temperatura e diminuição de 15,8% na condutividade elétrica. O tratamento demonstrou elevadas e homogêneas eficiências de remoção dos poluentes, principalmente para P-PO43-, indicando que a EC produz efluente com menor potencial poluidor e é indicada para tratamento de efluente doméstico em nível terciário.

ABSTRACT Electrocoagulation (EC) was applied as a tertiary treatment for the effluent of a vertical flow constructed wetland (VFCW). The EC system was composed of a cylindrical glass reactor (1 L) and aluminum electrodes connected to a DC power supply. The study was developed in two stages. In the first, the reactor operating conditions were set by a 32 (3×3) two-factor experiment, quantitative × quantitative, analyzing current intensity and time (current × time). Based on the results, the linear regression resulted in the combination of 1.3 A and 18 min, with an electric operation cost of 2.71 $.m−3. Next, the monitoring stage was conducted for four months, applying the EC under the established conditions. The mean removal efficiencies were 99.6% for P-PO43-, 20.6% for N-NO3−, 2.37 log of total coliforms, 2.35 log of Escherichia coli, 84.8% for chemical oxygen demand, 94.9% for turbidity, 95% for apparent color, an increase of 18.9% in pH and of 18.6% in temperature, and a decrease of 15.8% in electrical conductivity. The treatment showed high and homogeneous pollutant removal efficiencies, mainly for P-PO43-, indicating that the EC produces an effluent with lower polluting potential and it is recommended in the tertiary treatment of domestic wastewater.

Potencial de nitrificação/desnitrificação de tanque séptico e wetland construído com recirculação no tratamento descentralizado de esgoto de empreendimento habitacional / Nitrification/denitrification potential of a septic tank and a constructed wetland with recirculation in the decentralized wastewater treatment from a housing development

RESUMO Os wetlands construídos (WC) são uma ecotecnologia aplicável para o tratamento descentralizado de esgotos notadamente em pequenas comunidades, em razão de sua simplicidade operacional. Existem vários arranjos e combinações de WC possíveis, destacando-se o arranjo tanque séptico (TS), seguido da modalidade de WC de escoamento vertical (WCV) com recirculação do efluente do WCV de volta para o TS, como proposta para possibilitar a remoção de nitrogênio presente no esgoto afluente. Entretanto, no Brasil, essa configuração e suas implicações operacionais e de desempenho são pouco exploradas. Diante disso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o desempenho de um sistema de TS seguido de um WCV com recirculação no tratamento descentralizado de esgoto doméstico. O sistema empregado no tratamento de esgoto de um equivalente populacional de dez habitantes é composto de um TS (4,7 m3 de volume útil), seguido de um WCV (24,5 m2 de área superficial) preenchido com brita e plantado com Canna spp. O monitoramento, que compreendeu um período de nove meses, teve início após um ano e cinco meses de operação do sistema. Utilizando taxa de 50% de recirculação, taxa de aplicação hidráulica no WCV de 85 mm d-1 e carga de 47 g DQO m-2.d-1, foram obtidas boas eficiências para remoção conjunta de demanda química de oxigênio — DQO (80%), sólidos em suspensão totais — SST (85%) e nitrogênio total —NT (42%), mesmo com elevadas cargas orgânicas. Além das boas eficiências apresentadas, o sistema demonstrou ser robusto e de operação simples e representa uma alternativa tecnológica com potencial para o tratamento descentralizado de esgotos de empreendimentos habitacionais.

ABSTRACT Constructed wetland (CW) is an applicable eco-technology for decentralized wastewater treatment, notably in small communities, due to its operational simplicity. CW has several possible arrangements and combinations, among which the septic tank (ST) stands out, followed by the vertical flow constructed wetland (VFCW), with treated effluent recirculation back to the ST to enable nitrogen removal. However, in Brazil, this configuration and its operational and performance implications are little explored. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the performance of an ST system, followed by a VFCW with recirculation in the decentralized treatment of domestic wastewater. The wastewater treatment system for 10 inhabitants consists of an ST (4.7 m3 of useful volume), followed by a VFCW (24.5 m2 of surface area) planted with Canna spp. The monitoring, which covered a period of nine months, started after one year and five months of system operation. Using a 50% recirculation rate, VFCW hydraulic loading rate of 85 mm d-1, and organic load of 47 g COD m-2 d-1, good efficiencies were obtained for the joint removal of chemical oxygen demand — COD (80%), total suspended solids — TSS (85%), and total nitrogen — TN (42%), even with high organic loads. In addition to the good efficiencies presented, the system proved to be robust and easy to operate, representing a technological alternative with potential for the decentralized wastewater treatment of housing developments.

Incorporação de nitrogênio e fósforo no tecido foliar da macrófita Typha domingensis Pers. durante o tratamento de efluente da bovinocultura leiteira em wetlands construídos / Incorporation of nitrogen and phosphorus in the leaves of Typha domingensis Pers. macrophyte during treat dairy cattle wastewater in constructed wetlands

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o desempenho da macrófita Typha domingensis Pers., em diferentes etapas de seu desenvolvimento, na remoção de nitrogênio (N) e fósforo (P) em um wetland construído horizontal (WCH) aplicado no tratamento de efluente de bovinocultura leiteira. Para isso, foi realizado o monitoramento do crescimento e dos teores de N e P no tecido foliar das macrófitas, durante um período de 120 dias de crescimento. A macrófita Typha domingensis Pers. foi responsável por uma remoção média de 5,12 e 3,16% das cargas de N e P aplicadas no WCH, respectivamente. As maiores taxas de remoções de nutrientes (30,2 e 6,4 g P kg-1) foram identificadas quando ocorreram as maiores taxas de crescimento foliar (24,17 cm semana-1).

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of macrophyte Typha domingensis Pers. in different development stages in the nitrogen and phosphorus removal from a horizontal flow constructed wetland (WCH) applied for dairy cattle wastewater treatment. In this way, growth, nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the leaf tissue of macrophytes were monitored during a 120-day growth period. Typha domingensis Pers. macrophyte was responsible for a mean removal of 5.12 and 3.16% of the applied loads in the WCH, for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. The higher nutriens removal rates (30.2 and 6.4 g P kg-1) were identified when the higher tissue growth rates occurred (24.17 cm week-1).

Resíduos sólidos em um sistema de drenagem urbana no município de Santa Maria (RS) / Solid waste in a urban drainage system in municipality of Santa Maria (RS), Brazil

RESUMO Com o crescimento da população e o consequente aumento da urbanização, o lançamento de resíduos sólidos nos sistemas de drenagem urbana tem aumentado nos últimos anos, principalmente nas regiões periféricas das cidades. Este estudo teve como objetivo qualificar e quantificar os resíduos sólidos no arroio Cancela-Tamandai, localizado em área urbana, no município de Santa Maria (RS). Foram coletados ao todo 1.153,2 kg de resíduos sólidos com uma precipitação pluviométrica total para o período de novembro de 2012 a janeiro de 2013 de 518,94 mm, sendo, desses, 93,9% composto por matéria orgânica, sendo a maioria vegetação. O arroio Cancela-Tamandai apresentou uma carga de resíduos sólidos igual a 17,27 ou 0,424 kg.hab-1.ano-1. A curva de previsão de resíduos sólidos orgânicos drenados em função da precipitação pluviométrica apresentou correlação de 76,4%, um parâmetro importante para a tomada de decisão dos gestores municipais em relação aos resíduos sólidos gerados. Assim, conceber estratégias para o monitoramento desses resíduos representa passo importante na busca de soluções que visem um melhor gerenciamento de bacias hidrográficas urbanas.

ABSTRACT With population growth, and the resulting increase in urbanization, the disposal of solid waste in the urban drainage system has increased in recent years, especially in the outskirts of the cities. This study aimed to qualify and quantify the solid waste in Cancela-Tamandai's stream, located in an urban area, in the municipality of Santa Maria (RS). Were collected in total 1.153.2 kg of solid waste with a rainfall total for the period of 518.94 mm, 93.9% of these being composed of organic matter with the majority of vegetation debrid. Cancela-Tamandai's watershed presented a load of solid waste equal to 17.27 or 0.424 kg.inhab-1.year-1. The prediction curve of drained solid waste due to the rainfall correlated 76.4%, important parameter for decision making of municipal managers in relation to solid waste generated. Thus, devise strategies for monitoring these residues represents an important step in finding solutions aimed at better management of urban watersheds.

Influência do tipo de material suporte no desempenho de reatores biológicos de leito móvel na remoção de carbono e nitrificação de esgoto sanitário / The influence of material support kind on the biological moving bed reactors performance used for the carbon removal and nitrification of sewage

Neste trabalho foi mostrada a influência do tipo de material suporte: P4 (plástico reciclado rugoso, diâmetro médio de 2,31 mm, densidade de 900 kg.m-3, superfície específica potencial de 2.596 m².m-3sup) e P5 (polietileno, pouco rugoso, forma cilíndrica, diâmetro médio de 10 mm, densidade de 880 kg.m-3, superfície específica potencial de 3.075m².m-³sup) utilizados em dois reatores biológicos de leito móvel, fluxo contínuo, na remoção de carbono e nitrificação de esgoto sanitário, os quais foram divididos em duas fases, de acordo com a idade do lodo (IL): fase A: IL de 10 dias e fase B: IL de 3 dias. Foram aplicadas cargas orgânicas superficiais médias de 4,0 kgDQO.m-2.d-1 (P4) e de 4,1 kgDQO.m-2.d-1 (P5); e cargas superficiais de nitrogênio de 0,63 kgN.m-2.d-1 (P5) e de 0,66 kgN.m-2.d-1 (P5). Para o material P4, a remoção média foi de 87 por cento de carbono e 83 por cento de nitrogênio (fase A) e 80 por cento de carbono e 77 por cento de nitrogênio (fase B). Para o P5, remoção de 63 por cento de carbono e 55 por cento de nitrogênio (Fase A) e 59 por cento de carbono e de nitrogênio (fase B). Com base nos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que a remoção de carbono e nitrogênio não foi influenciada pela idade do lodo, mas pelo tipo de material suporte (forma ou características de superfície) e superfície disponível para o crescimento da biomassa.

This paper presented the influence of material support kind: P4 (rugous recycled plastic, medium diameter of 2.31 mm, density of 900 kg.m-3, specific surface potential of 2,596 m².m-3sup) and P5 (polietilene, cilindric shape, medium diameter of 10 mm, density of 880 kg.m-3, specific surface potential of 3,075m².m-3sup) used in two continuous flux biological moving bed reactors using different material support to remove nitrogen and carbon from sewage, which was divided in two phases according to sludge retention time (SRT): phase A: SRT of 10 days and phase B: SRT of 3 days. The organic loading rates applied were 4.0 kgCOD.m-2.d-1 (P4) and 4.1 kgCOD.m-2.d-1 (P5); and the nitrogen loading rates applied were 0.63 kgN.m-2.d-1 and 0.66 kgN.m-2.d-1 for P4 and P5, respectively. The support P4 achieved efficiencies of 87 percent for total carbon removal and 83 percent for nitrogen removal during phase A. These efficiencies slightly decreased to 80 and 77 percent for total carbon and nitrogen, respectively (phase B). The support P5 got removal efficiencies of 63 percent for total carbon and 55 percent for nitrogen (phase A) and 59 percent for total carbon and nitrogen (phase B). These results showed that the total carbon and nitrogen removal efficiencies were not affected by the SRT, but by the kind of support used (carrier geometry or surface characteristics) and available specific surface area for biomass growth.

The potential of denitrification for the stabilization of activated sludge processes affected by low alkalinity problems

In this study, the problems provoked by nitrification of wastewater with low alkalinity were analyzed in a pilot sequencing batch activated sludge reactor (SBR). Decrease in pH resulted in disappearence of protozoa. De-flocculation of the activated sludge floc started below pH 6.5, resulting in enhanced effluent turbidity and loss of bacteria. Nitrification efficiency was affected below pH 6.2. The denitrification activity was not sufficient to keep up the pH, due to a low C/N ratio of the wastewater. Based on alkalinity and ammonia concentration of the wastewater and the necessary denitrification rate to prevent operational problems, was developed a prognostic diagram. The applicability of this diagram was tested for the SBR with excellent results. The diagram could be applied to optimize the operation of wastewater treatment plants affected by problems with low alkalinity wastewater.

Os problemas provocados pela nitrificação no esgoto com baixa alcalinidade foram analisados num reator piloto do tipo lodos ativados seqüencial por batelada (RSB), alimentado por esgoto urbano. A diminuição do pH se mostrou em três níveis: com pH de 6,8 - 6,0 os protozoários, responsáveis para a filtração da fase liquida, desaparecerem; os flocos de lodos ativados começaram a se destruir abaixo pH 6,5 resultando em elevação da turbidez no efluente final e abaixo de pH 6,2-6,0 a nitrificação foi afetada. A influência da desnitrificação para manter o pH foi analisada. Devido a baixa relação C:N no esgoto pré-tratado, a desnitrificação não se mostrou suficiente para manter o pH estável. Este trabalho apresenta o cálculo da alcalinidade que considera a influência da nitrificação e desnitrificação, de acordo com os resultados obtidos no RSB. Baseado nesse cálculo, foi desenvolvida uma recomendação na forma gráfica para usar em ETE´s afetadas por baixa alcalinidade.

Nitrification in hybrid reactor with a recycled plastic support material

This work investigated the nitrification in a hybrid moving bed pilot scale reactor, which used a low density recycled plastic support material for biomass growth. The filling rate was 20 percent of its working volume (22L). The feeding and recirculation outflow was 45L/day. The reactor operated at a temperature of 16°C, in two phases, according to the sludge retention time (SRT): A phase was 10 days and B phase was 3 days (average values). The applied average volumetric nitrogen and organic loads were 0.16KgTKN/m3.day and 1kgCOD/m³.day, respectively. The results showed an average nitrogen removal of 95 percent and average COD removal of 89 percent, in both A and B phases. Nitrogen removal rates were independents of the SRT.