Biophysical mechanisms underlying tefluthrin-induced modulation of gating changes and resurgent current generation in the human Nav1.4 channel.

Human skeletal muscle contraction is triggered by activation of Nav1.4 channels. Nav1.4 channels can generate resurgent currents by channel reopening at hyperpolarized potentials through a gating transition dependent on the intracellular Navß4 peptide in the physiological conditions. Tefluthrin (TEF) is a pyrethroid insecticide that can disrupt electrical signaling in nerves and skeletal muscle, resulting in seizures, muscle spasms, fasciculations, and mental confusion. TEF can also induce tail currents through other voltage-gated sodium channels in the absence of Navß4 peptide, suggesting that muscle spasms may be caused by resurgent currents. Further, intracellular Navß4 peptide and extracellular TEF may show competitive or synergistic effects; however, their binding sites are still unknown. To address these issues, electrophysiological recordings were performed on CHO-K1 cells expressing Nav1.4 channels with intracellular Navß4 peptide, extracellular TEF, or both. TEF and Navß4 peptide induced a hyperpolarizing shift of activation and inactivation curves in the Nav1.4 channel. TEF also substantially prolonged the inactivation time constants, while simultaneous application of Navß4 peptide partially reversed this effect. Resurgent currents were enhanced by TEF and Navß4 peptide at negative potentials, but TEF more potently enhances resurgent currents and dampens decay of resurgent currents. With longer depolarization, peak resurgent currents decay was fastest with the TEF alone. Molecular docking suggested that TEF and Navß4 peptide binding site(s) are not in the narrowest part of the channel pore, but rather in the bundle-crossing regions and in the domain linkers, respectively. TEF can induce resurgent currents independently and synergistically with Navß4 peptide, which may explain the muscle spasms observed in TEF intoxication.

Transport of saquinavir across human brain-microvascular endothelial cells by poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles with surface poly-(γ-glutamic acid).

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) with surface poly-(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA) were applied to enhance the transport of saquinavir (SQV) across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). PLGA NPs encapsulated SQV and grafted with γ-PGA to form drug carriers (γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs) for crossing through a monolayer of human brain-microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) regulated with human astrocytes. The results revealed that a lower molecular weight of γ-PGA yielded a higher grafting efficiency of γ-PGA on PLGA NPs. In addition, γ-PGA with a low molecular weight accelerated the dissolution of SQV from γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs. A higher grafting efficiency (more didecyl dimethylammonium bromide) and a lower molecular weight of γ-PGA increased the permeability of SQV across the BBB, in general. When the grafting efficiency was 85.2% at 6kDa of γ-PGA, γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs reached about 6 times the permeability of free SQV (the maximal permeability). γ-PGA could also promote the endocytosis of NPs and expression of ornithine decarboxylase by HBMECs. γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs are efficacious nanoparticulate carriers in delivering antiretroviral drug across the BBB.

Expression of ornithine decarboxylase during the transport of saquinavir across the blood-brain barrier using composite polymeric nanocarriers under an electromagnetic field.

The expression of human ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and permeability of saquinavir (SQV) across the blood-brain barrier were studied using nanoparticles (NPs) composed of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), poly-(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA), and polyethyleneimine (PEI). SQV was encapsulated in the particle core to traverse a monolayer of human brain-microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) with the regulation of human astrocytes under an electromagnetic field (EMF). An increase in the weight percentage of PEI enhanced the particle size, zeta potential, and permeability of SQV. However, the viability of HBMECs reduced when the weight percentage of PEI increased. In addition, an increment in the molecular weight of γ-PGA enhanced the particle size and viability of HBMECs, and reduced the zeta potential. The permeability of SQV and expression of ODC were in the order: an EMF with amplitude modulation (AM)>an EMF with frequency modulation>no EMF. At 0.04% PEI, the AM EMF increased 2.38 times the uptake of NPs and 2.72 times the expression of ODC. The combination of PEI/γ-PGA/PLGA NPs and EMF can be an innovative strategy for delivering SQV into the brain.

Polyethyleneimine/poly-(γ-glutamic acid)/poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles for loading and releasing antiretroviral drug.

Nanoparticles (NPs) with ternary components of polyethyleneimine (PEI), poly-(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA), and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) were applied to carry and release saquinavir (SQV). Hydrophobic SQV was encapsulated in the particle core composed of PLGA to form SQV-PLGA NPs, and the surface of SQV-PLGA NPs was grafted successively with hydrophilic γ-PGA and PEI (PEI/γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs). The morphological images revealed that PEI/γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs were spheroid-like, in general. An increase in the concentration of didecyl dimethylammonium bromide and a reduction in the dose of SQV enhanced the entrapment efficiency of SQV in PLGA NPs. In addition, an increment in the molecular weight of γ-PGA reduced the grafting efficiency of PEI on γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs. An increase in the weight percentage of PEI enhanced the average particle diameter. However, the grafting efficiency of PEI on γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs and the dissolution rate of SQV from PEI/γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs reduced when the weight percentage of PEI increased. PEI/γ-PGA/SQV-PLGA NPs are an innovative drug delivery system and can be used for antiretroviral trials.

Surface coverage of didecyl dimethylammonium bromide on poly(lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles.

Coverage of didecyl dimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) on the surface of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) was investigated. DDAB-stabilized PLGA NPs (DDAB/PLGA NPs) were prepared by emulsification-diffusion technique with high shear stress. The fabricated DDAB/PLGA NPs were ellipsoidal and positively charged. An increase in the homogenizing stirring rate and in the weight percentage of DDAB in microemulsion reduced the particle size of DDAB/PLGA NPs. When the homogenizing stirring rate increased or the DDAB level in microemulsion decreased, the zeta potential of DDAB/PLGA NPs reduced. In addition, a high homogenizing stirring rate reduced the surface coverage of DDAB on PLGA NPs. The surface coverage of DDAB on PLGA NPs enhanced with increasing the weight percentage of DDAB in microemulsion. The quantity of DDAB attached on the surface could appreciably affect the properties of DDAB/PLGA NPs.

A novel strategy for designing the selective PPAR agonist by the "sum of activity" model.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha, delta and gamma are a collection of ligand-activated transcription factors crucial in lipid and glucose homeostasis. The involvement of these receptors in lipid metabolism makes them perfect therapeutic target for treating obesity and stroke. In this study, 'sum of activity' model was employed to design multi-target agonists. We used a new strategy to design agonists that fit both alpha and delta but not gamma, to avoid side effect. The CoMFA and CoMSIA models were used to explore the pharmacophore features by constructing three individual models: (a) alpha-model, (b) delta-model and (c) gamma-model, and two sum models: (d) alpha, delta- model, and (e) alpha, delta and gamma-model. The CoMFA model yielded a significant cross validation value, q(2), of 0.729 and non-cross validation value, r(2), of 0.933 in the alpha, delta-model. The CoMSIA studies yielded the best predictive models with q(2) of 0.622 in A+S and with r(2) of 0.911 in the alpha, delta-model. Finally, we proposed that distinct features shown in models (a), (b), (d) but not (c) and (e) should be accounted in designing weight-controlling drugs.

Key features for designing phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.

Phosphodiesterase superfamily is the key regulator of 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) decomposition in human body. Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) inhibitors, sildenafil, vardenafil and tadalafil, are well known oral treatment for males with erectile dysfunction. To investigate the inhibitory effects of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) compounds to PDE-5, we performed both ligand-based and structure-based studies on this topic. Comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA) studies were conducted to construct three dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) models of series of known PDE-5 inhibitors. The predictive models had cross-validated, q(2), and non cross-validated coefficient, r(2), values of 0.791 and 0.948 for CoMFA and 0.724 and 0.908 for CoMSIA. These two 3D-QSAR models were used to predict activity of TCM compounds. Docking simulations were performed to further analyze the binding mode of training set and TCM compounds. A putative binding model was proposed based on CoMFA and CoMSIA contour maps and docking simulations; formation of pi-stacking, water bridge and specific hydrogen bonding were deemed important interactions between ligands and PDE-5. Of our TCM compounds, engeletin, satisfied our binding model, and hence, emerged as PDE-5 inhibitor candidate. Using this study as an example, we demonstrated that docking should be conducted for qualitative purposes, such as identifying protein characteristics, rather than for quantitative analyses that rank compound efficacy based on results of scoring functions. Prediction of compound activity should be reserved for QSAR analyses, and scoring functions and docking scores should be used for preliminary screening of TCM database (http://tcm.cmu.edu.tw/index.php).