Comprehensive genetic screening of early-onset dementia patients in an Austrian cohort-suggesting new disease-contributing genes.

Early-onset dementia (EOD), with symptom onset before age 65, has a strong genetic burden. Due to genetic and clinical overlaps between different types of dementia, whole-exome sequencing (WES) has emerged as an appropriate screening method for diagnostic testing and novel gene-finding approaches. We performed WES and C9orf72 repeat testing in 60 well-defined Austrian EOD patients. Seven patients (12%) carried likely disease-causing variants in monogenic genes, PSEN1, MAPT, APP, and GRN. Five patients (8%) were APOE4 homozygote carriers. Definite and possible risk variants were detected in the genes TREM2, SORL1, ABCA7 and TBK1. In an explorative approach, we cross-checked rare gene variants in our cohort with a curated neurodegeneration candidate gene list and identified DCTN1, MAPK8IP3, LRRK2, VPS13C and BACE1 as promising candidate genes. Conclusively, 12 cases (20%) carried variants relevant to patient counseling, comparable to previously reported studies, and can thus be considered genetically resolved. Reduced penetrance, oligogenic inheritance and not yet identified high-risk genes might explain the high number of unresolved cases. To address this issue, we provide complete genetic and phenotypic information (uploaded to the European Genome-phenome Archive), enabling other researchers to cross-check variants. Thereby, we hope to increase the chance of independently finding the same gene/variant-hit in other well-defined EOD patient cohorts, thus confirming new genetic risk variants or variant combinations.

Investigation of Shared Genetic Risk Factors Between Parkinson's Disease and Cancers.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies that examined the association between Parkinson's disease (PD) and cancers led to inconsistent results, but they face a number of methodological difficulties. OBJECTIVE: We used results from genome-wide association studies (GWASs) to study the genetic correlation between PD and different cancers to identify common genetic risk factors. METHODS: We used individual data for participants of European ancestry from the Courage-PD (Comprehensive Unbiased Risk Factor Assessment for Genetics and Environment in Parkinson's Disease; PD, N = 16,519) and EPITHYR (differentiated thyroid cancer, N = 3527) consortia and summary statistics of GWASs from iPDGC (International Parkinson Disease Genomics Consortium; PD, N = 482,730), Melanoma Meta-Analysis Consortium (MMAC), Breast Cancer Association Consortium (breast cancer), the Prostate Cancer Association Group to Investigate Cancer Associated Alterations in the Genome (prostate cancer), International Lung Cancer Consortium (lung cancer), and Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium (ovarian cancer) (N comprised between 36,017 and 228,951 for cancer GWASs). We estimated the genetic correlation between PD and cancers using linkage disequilibrium score regression. We studied the association between PD and polymorphisms associated with cancers, and vice versa, using cross-phenotypes polygenic risk score (PRS) analyses. RESULTS: We confirmed a previously reported positive genetic correlation of PD with melanoma (Gcorr = 0.16 [0.04; 0.28]) and reported an additional significant positive correlation of PD with prostate cancer (Gcorr = 0.11 [0.03; 0.19]). There was a significant inverse association between the PRS for ovarian cancer and PD (odds ratio [OR] = 0.89 [0.84; 0.94]). Conversely, the PRS of PD was positively associated with breast cancer (OR = 1.08 [1.06; 1.10]) and inversely associated with ovarian cancer (OR = 0.95 [0.91; 0.99]). The association between PD and ovarian cancer was mostly driven by rs183211 located in an intron of the NSF gene (17q21.31). CONCLUSIONS: We show evidence in favor of a contribution of pleiotropic genes to the association between PD and specific cancers. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

No Association of Multiple Sclerosis with C9orf72 Hexanucleotide Repeat Size in an Austrian Cohort.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a common immune-mediated disorder of the central nervous system that affects young adults and is characterized by demyelination and neurodegeneration. Recent studies have associated C9orf72 intermediate repeat expansions with MS. The objective of this study was to investigate whether C9orf72 repeat length is associated with MS or with a specific disease course in a monocentric Austrian MS cohort. Genotyping of 382 MS patients and 643 non-neurological controls for C9orf72 repeat expansions was performed. The study did not find a difference in the distribution of repeat numbers between controls and MS cases (median repeat units = 2; p = 0.39). Additionally, sub-analysis did not establish a link between intermediate repeats and MS (p = 0.23) and none of the patients with progressive disease course carried an intermediate allele (20-30 repeat units). Exploratory analysis for different cut-offs (of ≥7, ≥17, and ≥24) did not reveal any significant differences in allele frequencies between MS and controls. However, the study did identify a progressive MS patient with a pathogenic C9orf72 expansion and probable co-existing behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) in a retrospective chart review. In conclusion, this study did not find evidence supporting an association between C9orf72 repeat length and MS or a specific disease course in the Austrian MS cohort. However, the identification of a progressive MS patient with a pathogenic C9orf72 expansion and probable co-existing with FTD highlights the complexity and challenges involved in recognizing distinct neurodegenerative diseases that may co-occur in MS patients.

C9orf72 repeat length might influence clinical sub-phenotypes in dementia patients.

BACKGROUND: C9orf72 repeat expansions have been observed in a wide variety of neurodegenerative disorders. The cut-off between normal and pathogenic alleles is not well established as repeat sizing methods are often semi-quantitative. However, intermediate alleles might influence disease prevalence and phenotype, as seen for other repeat expansion disorders. We aimed to further delineate the prevalence of small, intermediate and expanded C9orf72 alleles and elucidate their potential influence on the disease phenotype. METHODS: DNA derived from patients (n = 1804) and healthy individuals (n = 643) was obtained from multiple collectives in Austria. Genotyping was performed using a two-step PCR assay followed by Southern blotting. RESULTS: 3.4% of clinically diagnosed frontotemporal dementia (FTD; n = 5/147) cases and 0.8% of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease (AD; n = 5/602) cases were carriers of a pathological C9orf72 repeat expansion. A significantly earlier disease onset was detected in expansion carriers compared to non-carriers in the FTD and AD cohorts (median 50 years, range 39-64 vs. median 64 years, range 36-92, p = 0.018 and median 63 years, range 54-71 vs. median 74 years, range 45-92, p = 0.006, respectively). C9orf72 intermediate alleles were significantly associated with cerebellar symptoms (p = 0.0004) and sensory deficits in the dementia cohort (p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: C9orf72 repeat expansion carriers showed earlier disease onset compared to non-carriers with clinical diagnosis of FTD and AD. Furthermore, C9orf72 intermediate repeats might modify the phenotypic expression in dementia.

Dairy Intake and Parkinson's Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Study.

BACKGROUND: Previous prospective studies highlighted dairy intake as a risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD), particularly in men. It is unclear whether this association is causal or explained by reverse causation or confounding. OBJECTIVE: The aim is to examine the association between genetically predicted dairy intake and PD using two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR). METHODS: We genotyped a well-established instrumental variable for dairy intake located in the lactase gene (rs4988235) within the Courage-PD consortium (23 studies; 9823 patients and 8376 controls of European ancestry). RESULTS: Based on a dominant model, there was an association between genetic predisposition toward higher dairy intake and PD (odds ratio [OR] per one serving per day = 1.70, 95% confidence interval = 1.12-2.60, P = 0.013) that was restricted to men (OR = 2.50 [1.37-4.56], P = 0.003; P-difference with women = 0.029). CONCLUSIONS: Using MR, our findings provide further support for a causal relationship between dairy intake and higher PD risk, not biased by confounding or reverse causation. Further studies are needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. © 2022 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

The Interaction between HLA-DRB1 and Smoking in Parkinson's Disease Revisited.

BACKGROUND: Two studies that examined the interaction between HLA-DRB1 and smoking in Parkinson's disease (PD) yielded findings in opposite directions. OBJECTIVE: To perform a large-scale independent replication of the HLA-DRB1 × smoking interaction. METHODS: We genotyped 182 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) associated with smoking initiation in 12 424 cases and 9480 controls to perform a Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis in strata defined by HLA-DRB1. RESULTS: At the amino acid level, a valine at position 11 (V11) in HLA-DRB1 displayed the strongest association with PD. MR showed an inverse association between genetically predicted smoking initiation and PD only in absence of V11 (odds ratio, 0.74, 95% confidence interval, 0.59-0.93, PInteraction  = 0.028). In silico predictions of the influence of V11 and smoking-induced modifications of α-synuclein on binding affinity showed findings consistent with this interaction pattern. CONCLUSIONS: Despite being one of the most robust findings in PD research, the mechanisms underlying the inverse association between smoking and PD remain unknown. Our findings may help better understand this association. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Development of a multiplexed targeted mass spectrometry assay for LRRK2-phosphorylated Rabs and Ser910/Ser935 biomarker sites.

Mutations that increase the protein kinase activity of LRRK2 are one of the most common causes of familial Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 phosphorylates a subset of Rab GTPases within their Switch-II motif, impacting interaction with effectors. We describe and validate a new, multiplexed targeted mass spectrometry assay to quantify endogenous levels of LRRK2-phosphorylated Rab substrates (Rab1, Rab3, Rab8, Rab10, Rab35 and Rab43) as well as total levels of Rabs, LRRK2 and LRRK2-phosphorylated at the Ser910 and Ser935 biomarker sites. Exploiting this assay, we quantify for the first time the relative levels of each of the pRab proteins in different cells (mouse embryonic fibroblasts, human neutrophils) and mouse tissues (brain, kidney, lung and spleen). We define how these components are impacted by Parkinson's pathogenic mutations (LRRK2[R1441C] and VPS35[D620N]) and LRRK2 inhibitors. We find that the VPS35[D620N], but not LRRK2[R1441C] mutation, enhances Rab1 phosphorylation in a manner blocked by administration of an LRRK2 inhibitor, providing the first evidence that endogenous Rab1 is a physiological substrate for LRRK2. We exploit this assay to demonstrate that in Parkinson's patients with VPS35[D620N] mutations, phosphorylation of multiple Rab proteins (Rab1, Rab3, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab43) is elevated. We highlight the benefits of this assay over immunoblotting approaches currently deployed to assess LRRK2 Rab signalling pathway.

Exome sequencing in multiple sclerosis families identifies 12 candidate genes and nominates biological pathways for the genesis of disease.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system characterized by myelin loss and neuronal dysfunction. Although the majority of patients do not present familial aggregation, Mendelian forms have been described. We performed whole-exome sequencing analysis in 132 patients from 34 multi-incident families, which nominated likely pathogenic variants for MS in 12 genes of the innate immune system that regulate the transcription and activation of inflammatory mediators. Rare missense or nonsense variants were identified in genes of the fibrinolysis and complement pathways (PLAU, MASP1, C2), inflammasome assembly (NLRP12), Wnt signaling (UBR2, CTNNA3, NFATC2, RNF213), nuclear receptor complexes (NCOA3), and cation channels and exchangers (KCNG4, SLC24A6, SLC8B1). These genes suggest a disruption of interconnected immunological and pro-inflammatory pathways as the initial event in the pathophysiology of familial MS, and provide the molecular and biological rationale for the chronic inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration observed in MS patients.

Co-incidental C9orf72 expansion mutation-related frontotemporal lobar degeneration pathology and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

BACKGROUND: The C9orf72 hexanucleotide expansion mutation is the most common cause of genetic frontotemporal dementia (FTD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and combined FTD-ALS. Its underlying neuropathology combines TDP-43 pathology and dipeptide repeat protein (DPR) deposits and may also associate with other neurodegeneration-associated protein aggregates. Herein we present a unique combination of C9orf72 mutation with sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in a 74-year-old patient with rapidly progressive dementia. METHODS: Detailed neuropathological examination including immunohistochemistry for several proteinopathies. Genetic analysis was conducted by repeat primed polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Furthermore, we analyzed additional C9orf72 mutation carriers for prion-protein (PrP) deposits in brain tissue and screened the cerebellar cortex of other CJD cases for p62/DPR neuronal inclusions to assess the frequency of combined pathologies. RESULTS: Postmortem brain examination of a patient with a rapidly progressive neurological deterioration of 8 months' duration confirmed the diagnosis of CJD. She harbored valine homozygosity at PRNP codon 129. In addition, a frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)-pattern with TDP-43 protein aggregates and p62+/C9RANT+ positive inclusions along with a high degree of Alzheimer-related pathology (A3B3C3) were identified. The suspected C9orf72 expansion mutation was confirmed by repeat-primed PCR. Screening of 13 C9orf72 cases showed no pathological PrP aggregates and screening of 100 CJD cases revealed no other C9orf72 expansion mutation carriers. CONCLUSION: A combination of a C9orf72 expansion mutation-related FTLD with sporadic CJD in the same patient is rare. While the rarity of both diseases makes this concurrence most likely to be coincidental, questions regarding a potential link between these two neurodegenerative pathologies deserve further studies.

Mitochondrial damage-associated inflammation highlights biomarkers in PRKN/PINK1 parkinsonism.

There is increasing evidence for a role of inflammation in Parkinson's disease. Recent research in murine models suggests that parkin and PINK1 deficiency leads to impaired mitophagy, which causes the release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), thereby triggering inflammation. Specifically, the CGAS (cyclic GMP-AMP synthase)-STING (stimulator of interferon genes) pathway mitigates activation of the innate immune system, quantifiable as increased interleukin-6 (IL6) levels. However, the role of IL6 and circulating cell-free mtDNA in unaffected and affected individuals harbouring mutations in PRKN/PINK1 and idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients remain elusive. We investigated IL6, C-reactive protein, and circulating cell-free mtDNA in serum of 245 participants in two cohorts from tertiary movement disorder centres. We performed a hypothesis-driven rank-based statistical approach adjusting for multiple testing. We detected (i) elevated IL6 levels in patients with biallelic PRKN/PINK1 mutations compared to healthy control subjects in a German cohort, supporting the concept of a role for inflammation in PRKN/PINK1-linked Parkinson's disease. In addition, the comparison of patients with biallelic and heterozygous mutations in PRKN/PINK1 suggests a gene dosage effect. The differences in IL6 levels were validated in a second independent Italian cohort; (ii) a correlation between IL6 levels and disease duration in carriers of PRKN/PINK1 mutations, while no such association was observed for idiopathic Parkinson's disease patients. These results highlight the potential of IL6 as progression marker in Parkinson's disease due to PRKN/PINK1 mutations; (iii) increased circulating cell-free mtDNA serum levels in both patients with biallelic or with heterozygous PRKN/PINK1 mutations compared to idiopathic Parkinson's disease, which is in line with previous findings in murine models. By contrast, circulating cell-free mtDNA concentrations in unaffected heterozygous carriers of PRKN/PINK1 mutations were comparable to control levels; and (iv) that circulating cell-free mtDNA levels have good predictive potential to discriminate between idiopathic Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease linked to heterozygous PRKN/PINK1 mutations, providing functional evidence for a role of heterozygous mutations in PRKN or PINK1 as Parkinson's disease risk factor. Taken together, our study further implicates inflammation due to impaired mitophagy and subsequent mtDNA release in the pathogenesis of PRKN/PINK1-linked Parkinson's disease. In individuals carrying mutations in PRKN/PINK1, IL6 and circulating cell-free mtDNA levels may serve as markers of Parkinson's disease state and progression, respectively. Finally, our study suggests that targeting the immune system with anti-inflammatory medication holds the potential to influence the disease course of Parkinson's disease, at least in this subset of patients.

Diagnostic exome sequencing in non-acquired focal epilepsies highlights a major role of GATOR1 complex genes.

BACKGROUND: The genetic architecture of non-acquired focal epilepsies (NAFEs) becomes increasingly unravelled using genome-wide sequencing datasets. However, it remains to be determined how this emerging knowledge can be translated into a diagnostic setting. To bridge this gap, we assessed the diagnostic outcomes of exome sequencing (ES) in NAFE. METHODS: 112 deeply phenotyped patients with NAFE were included in the study. Diagnostic ES was performed, followed by a screen to detect variants of uncertain significance (VUSs) in 15 well-established focal epilepsy genes. Explorative gene prioritisation was used to identify possible novel candidate aetiologies with so far limited evidence for NAFE. RESULTS: ES identified pathogenic or likely pathogenic (ie, diagnostic) variants in 13/112 patients (12%) in the genes DEPDC5, NPRL3, GABRG2, SCN1A, PCDH19 and STX1B. Two pathogenic variants were microdeletions involving NPRL3 and PCDH19. Nine of the 13 diagnostic variants (69%) were found in genes of the GATOR1 complex, a potentially druggable target involved in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway. In addition, 17 VUSs in focal epilepsy genes and 6 rare variants in candidate genes (MTOR, KCNA2, RBFOX1 and SCN3A) were detected. Five patients with reported variants had double hits in different genes, suggesting a possible (oligogenic) role of multiple rare variants. CONCLUSION: This study underscores the molecular heterogeneity of NAFE with GATOR1 complex genes representing the by far most relevant genetic aetiology known to date. Although the diagnostic yield is lower compared with severe early-onset epilepsies, the high rate of VUSs and candidate variants suggests a further increase in future years.

Correction to: The urinary microbiome shows different bacterial genera in renal transplant recipients and non-transplant patients at time of acute kidney injury - a pilot study.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

The urinary microbiome shows different bacterial genera in renal transplant recipients and non-transplant patients at time of acute kidney injury - a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: In the past urine was considered sterile. Through the introduction of next generation sequencing, it has become clear that a urinary microbiome exists. Acute kidney injury (AKI) represents a major threat to kidney transplant recipients. Remarkable changes in the urinary metabolome occur during AKI, which may influence the urinary microbiome. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the urinary microbiome in renal transplant recipients (RTX) and non-transplant recipients (nRTX) at time of AKI. METHODS: In this cross-sectional pilot-study the urinary microbiome of 21 RTX and 9 nRTX with AKI was examined. Clean catch morning urine samples were obtained from all patients on the first day of AKI diagnosis. AKI was defined according to KDIGO guidelines. Urinary microbiota and the urinary metabolome during AKI were assessed in one patient. 16S rRNA sequencing was performed. Sequences were processed using UPARSE-pipeline for operational taxonomic units (OTU) and taxon finding. RESULTS: We successfully extracted and sequenced bacterial DNA from 100% of the urine samples. All 30 patients revealed at least 106,138 reads. 319 OTU and 211 different genera were identified. The microbiotic diversity richness in the RTX group was no different from the nRTX group. Eighteen genera were solely present in nRTX and 7 in RTX. CONCLUSIONS: The urinary microbiome at time of AKI showed different bacterial genera in RTX compared to nRTX. The nRTX group exhibited no different diversity to the RTX group. Irrespective of the status of a previous renal transplantation, the urinary microbiome comprised > 210 different genera. An intraindividual change in microbiota diversity and richness was observed in one study patient during recovery from AKI.

The Parkinson's disease VPS35[D620N] mutation enhances LRRK2-mediated Rab protein phosphorylation in mouse and human.

Missense mutations in the LRRK2 (Leucine-rich repeat protein kinase-2) and VPS35 genes result in autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. The VPS35 gene encodes for the cargo-binding component of the retromer complex, while LRRK2 modulates vesicular trafficking by phosphorylating a subgroup of Rab proteins. Pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 increase its kinase activity. It is not known how the only thus far described pathogenic VPS35 mutation, [p.D620N] exerts its effects. We reveal that the VPS35[D620N] knock-in mutation strikingly elevates LRRK2-mediated phosphorylation of Rab8A, Rab10, and Rab12 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. The VPS35[D620N] mutation also increases Rab10 phosphorylation in mouse tissues (the lung, kidney, spleen, and brain). Furthermore, LRRK2-mediated Rab10 phosphorylation is increased in neutrophils as well as monocytes isolated from three Parkinson's patients with a heterozygous VPS35[D620N] mutation compared with healthy donors and idiopathic Parkinson's patients. LRRK2-mediated Rab10 phosphorylation is significantly suppressed by knock-out or knock-down of VPS35 in wild-type, LRRK2[R1441C], or VPS35[D620N] cells. Finally, VPS35[D620N] mutation promotes Rab10 phosphorylation more potently than LRRK2 pathogenic mutations. Available data suggest that Parkinson's patients with VPS35[D620N] develop the disease at a younger age than those with LRRK2 mutations. Our observations indicate that VPS35 controls LRRK2 activity and that the VPS35[D620N] mutation results in a gain of function, potentially causing PD through hyperactivation of the LRRK2 kinase. Our findings suggest that it may be possible to elaborate compounds that target the retromer complex to suppress LRRK2 activity. Moreover, patients with VPS35[D620N] associated Parkinson's might benefit from LRRK2 inhibitor treatment that have entered clinical trials in humans.

A novel nonsense autosomal dominant mutation in the GLRA1 gene causing hyperekplexia.

We present a family with two members affected by hyperekplexia and two unaffected members. All exons in the glycine receptor alpha 1 subunit gene (GLRA1) were sequenced in all four family members. Our index patient harbored a novel nonsense mutation (p.Trp314*; rs867618642) in the transmembrane domain three of the GLRA1 and a novel missense variant in the NH2-terminal part (p.Val67Met; rs142888296). After development of tolerance for the effective treatment with clobazam a drug holiday led to a sustained restoration of the treatment response.

Metformin reverses TRAP1 mutation-associated alterations in mitochondrial function in Parkinson's disease.

The mitochondrial proteins TRAP1 and HTRA2 have previously been shown to be phosphorylated in the presence of the Parkinson's disease kinase PINK1 but the downstream signalling is unknown. HTRA2 and PINK1 loss of function causes parkinsonism in humans and animals. Here, we identified TRAP1 as an interactor of HTRA2 using an unbiased mass spectrometry approach. In our human cell models, TRAP1 overexpression is protective, rescuing HTRA2 and PINK1-associated mitochondrial dysfunction and suggesting that TRAP1 acts downstream of HTRA2 and PINK1. HTRA2 regulates TRAP1 protein levels, but TRAP1 is not a direct target of HTRA2 protease activity. Following genetic screening of Parkinson's disease patients and healthy controls, we also report the first TRAP1 mutation leading to complete loss of functional protein in a patient with late onset Parkinson's disease. Analysis of fibroblasts derived from the patient reveal that oxygen consumption, ATP output and reactive oxygen species are increased compared to healthy individuals. This is coupled with an increased pool of free NADH, increased mitochondrial biogenesis, triggering of the mitochondrial unfolded protein response, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and sensitivity to mitochondrial removal and apoptosis. These data highlight the role of TRAP1 in the regulation of energy metabolism and mitochondrial quality control. Interestingly, the diabetes drug metformin reverses mutation-associated alterations on energy metabolism, mitochondrial biogenesis and restores mitochondrial membrane potential. In summary, our data show that TRAP1 acts downstream of PINK1 and HTRA2 for mitochondrial fine tuning, whereas TRAP1 loss of function leads to reduced control of energy metabolism, ultimately impacting mitochondrial membrane potential. These findings offer new insight into mitochondrial pathologies in Parkinson's disease and provide new prospects for targeted therapies.

Targeted resequencing and systematic in vivo functional testing identifies rare variants in MEIS1 as significant contributors to restless legs syndrome.

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a common neurologic condition characterized by nocturnal dysesthesias and an urge to move, affecting the legs. RLS is a complex trait, for which genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified common susceptibility alleles of modest (OR 1.2-1.7) risk at six genomic loci. Among these, variants in MEIS1 have emerged as the largest risk factors for RLS, suggesting that perturbations in this transcription factor might be causally related to RLS susceptibility. To establish this causality, direction of effect, and total genetic burden of MEIS1, we interrogated 188 case subjects and 182 control subjects for rare alleles not captured by previous GWASs, followed by genotyping of ∼3,000 case subjects and 3,000 control subjects, and concluded with systematic functionalization of all discovered variants using a previously established in vivo model of neurogenesis. We observed a significant excess of rare MEIS1 variants in individuals with RLS. Subsequent assessment of all nonsynonymous variants by in vivo complementation revealed an excess of loss-of-function alleles in individuals with RLS. Strikingly, these alleles compromised the function of the canonical MEIS1 splice isoform but were irrelevant to an isoform known to utilize an alternative 3' sequence. Our data link MEIS1 loss of function to the etiopathology of RLS, highlight how combined sequencing and systematic functional annotation of rare variation at GWAS loci can detect risk burden, and offer a plausible explanation for the specificity of phenotypic expressivity of loss-of-function alleles at a locus broadly necessary for neurogenesis and neurodevelopment.