Green Extraction of Depsidones and Depsides from Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. Using Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents.

Various studies have shown that Hypogymnia physodes are a source of many biologically active compounds, including lichen acids. These lichen-specific compounds are characterized by antioxidant, antiproliferative, and antimicrobial properties, and they can be used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The main aim of this study was to optimize the composition of natural deep eutectic solvents based on proline or betaine and lactic acid for the extraction of metabolites from H. physodes. The design of the experimental method and the response surface approach allowed the optimization of the extraction process of specific lichen metabolites. Based on preliminary research, a multivariate model of the experiment was developed. For optimization, the following parameters were employed in the experiment to confirm the model: a proline/lactic acid/water molar ratio of 1:2:2. Such a mixture allowed the efficient extraction of three depsidones (i.e., physodic acid, physodalic acid, 3-hydroyphysodic acid) and one depside (i.e., atranorin). The developed composition of the solvent mixtures ensured good efficiency when extracting the metabolites from the thallus of H. physodes with high antioxidant properties.

Atranorin inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation by targeting ASC and protects NLRP3 inflammasome-driven diseases.

Aberrant NLRP3 activation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous inflammation-associated diseases. However, no small molecular inhibitor that directly targets NLRP3 inflammasome has been approved so far. In this study, we show that Atranorin (C19H18O8), the secondary metabolites of lichen family, effectively prevents NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages and dendritic cells. Mechanistically, Atranorin inhibits NLRP3 activation induced cytokine secretion and cell pyroptosis through binding to ASC protein directly and therefore restraining ASC oligomerization. The pharmacological effect of Atranorin is evaluated in NLRP3 inflammasome-driven disease models. Atranorin lowers serum IL-1ß and IL-18 levels in LPS induced mice acute inflammation model. Also, Atranorin protects against MSU crystal induced mice gouty arthritis model and lowers ankle IL-1ß level. Moreover, Atranorin ameliorates intestinal inflammation and epithelial barrier dysfunction in DSS induced mice ulcerative colitis and inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation in colon. Altogether, our study identifies Atranorin as a novel NLRP3 inhibitor that targets ASC protein and highlights the potential therapeutic effects of Atranorin in NLRP3 inflammasome-driven diseases including acute inflammation, gouty arthritis and ulcerative colitis.

In†Vitro and in†Silico Studies of Lichen Compounds Atranorin and Salazinic Acid as Potential Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Anticancer Agents.

Lichens are symbiotic organisms made up of alga/cyanobacterium and fungus. We investigated antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer properties of two lichen compounds, atranorin and salazinic acid, and five lichen species: Heterodermia boryi, Heterodermia diademata, Heterodermia hypocaesia, Parmotrema reticulatum, and Stereocaulon foliolosum. Free radical scavenging, Ferric reducing potential, Nitric oxide scavenging, and Trolox equivalent capacity were used to measure antioxidant activity. Strong radical scavenging action was demonstrated by atranorin and salazinic acid, with IC50 values of 39.31 µM and 12.14 µM, respectively. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) assay based on resazurin, was used to measure antibacterial activity. Parmotrema reticulatum demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against Raoultella planticola with MIC of 7.8 µg/mL. Cytotoxicity assay on breast cancer cell line was used to assess anticancer activity. To further understand the binding locations on the target proteins Er (Estrogen Receptor alpha), EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor), mTOR (Mammalian Target of Rapamycin), and PgR (Progesterone Receptor), molecular docking experiments were conducted. Docking study showed that the binding energies of atranorin and salazinic acid with mTOR were -5.31 kcal/mol and -3.43 kcal/mol, respectively. The results suggest that atranorin has the potential to be a multitargeted molecule with natural antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer properties.

Bioactive Compounds and Their Influence on Postnatal Neurogenesis.

Since postnatal neurogenesis was revealed to have significant implications for cognition and neurological health, researchers have been increasingly exploring the impact of natural compounds on this process, aiming to uncover strategies for enhancing brain plasticity. This review provides an overview of postnatal neurogenesis, neurogenic zones, and disorders characterized by suppressed neurogenesis and neurogenesis-stimulating bioactive compounds. Examining recent studies, this review underscores the multifaceted effects of natural compounds on postnatal neurogenesis. In essence, understanding the interplay between postnatal neurogenesis and natural compounds could bring novel insights into brain health interventions. Exploiting the therapeutic abilities of these compounds may unlock innovative approaches to enhance cognitive function, mitigate neurodegenerative diseases, and promote overall brain well-being.

Atranorin driven by nano materials SPION lead to ferroptosis of gastric cancer stem cells by weakening the mRNA 5-hydroxymethylcytidine modification of the Xc-/GPX4 axis and its expression.

Gastric cancer is a highly malignant tumor. Gastric cancer stem cells (GCSCs) are the main causes of drug resistance, metastasis, recurrence, and poor prognosis. As a secondary metabolite of lichen, Atranorin has a variety of biological effects, such as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and wound healing; however, its killing effect on GCSCs has not been reported. In this study, we constructed Atranorin complexes comprising superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) (Atranorin@SPION). In vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed that Atranorin@SPION could significantly inhibit the proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and tumorigenicity of CD44+/ CD24+ GCSCs, and induce oxidative stress injury, Fe2+ accumulation, and ferroptosis. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR and western blotting results showed that Atranorin@SPION not only reduced the expression levels of GCSC stem cell markers and cell proliferation and division markers, but also significantly inhibited the expression levels of key molecules in the cystine/glutamate transporter (Xc-)/glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase (TET) family proteins. The results of high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and Dot blotting showed that Atranorin@SPION significantly inhibited the mRNA 5­hydroxymethylcytidine modification of GCSCs. Meanwhile, the results of RNA immunoprecipitation-PCR also indicated that Atranorin@SPIONs significantly reduced the 5-hydroxymethylcytidine modification level of GPX4 and SLC7A11 mRNA 3' untranslated region in GCSCs, resulting in a decrease in their stability, shortening their half-lives and reducing translation activity. Therefore, this study revealed that Atranorin@SPIONs induced ferroptosis of GCSCs by weakening the expression of the Xc-/GPX4 axis and the 5-hydroxymethylcytidine modification of mRNAs in the pathway, thereby achieving their therapeutic effect on gastric cancer.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Compounds Isolated from Tunisian Lichens Species.

The lichen's special symbiotic structure enables it to produce bioactive substances. They have historically been recognized for their aesthetic and medicinal benefits. Furthermore, in recent years, they have performed in various fields, including perfumery, dyeing, and pharmacology due to their rich secondary metabolites. From our study, four compounds were isolated from organic extracts of Parmotrema hypoleucinum, Roccella phycopsis, and Xanthoria parietina and identified by spectroscopic investigation as atranorin, (+)-iso-usnic acid, methyl orsellinate, and parietin, respectively. The anti-inflammatory effects of lichens extracts, and pure compounds were evaluated on RAW 264.7 macrophages cells at different concentrations. At 25 µg/mL all treated samples did not show any effect on cell viability. Atranorin and (+)-iso-usnic acid showed an inhibitory effect on nitric oxide (NO) levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured using Griess reagent, atranorin and (+)-iso-usnic acid showed a high anti-inflammatory potential (75.99 % and 57.27 % at 25 µg/mL). On the other hand, methyl orsellinate and the organic extracts of three lichens showed good anti-inflammatory activity ranging from 29.16 % at 25 µg/mL to 86.91 % at 100 µg/mL.

Compositional variation of atranorin-related components of lichen Myelochroa leucotyliza dependent on extraction solvent and their quantitative analysis by qHNMR.

INTRODUCTION: Quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (qNMR) is one of the effective and reliable quantification tools for natural product research. Myelochroa leucotyliza belongs to the genus Myelochroa, a common foliose lichen genus found in the Korean Peninsula, and has not been quantitatively analysed using NMR. Previous chemical studies on M. leucotyliza have been limited to the main components by traditional thin-layer chromatography (TLC) experiments. OBJECTIVE: We explored the stability of atranorin, a major component of M. leucotyliza, in methanol and acetone using NMR and characterised the changes in the chemical profiles of the lichen extracts in methanol and acetone using qNMR. METHODOLOGY: Atranorin transformation in the presence of methanol was analysed using time-dependent proton (1 H)-NMR analysis (600 MHz NMR spectrometer). A 1 H qNMR (qHNMR) method was established using dimethyl sulfone as the internal standard for quantifying the selected components isolated from M. leucotyliza. Homogenous mixtures of the samples were dissolved in deuterated chloroform. RESULTS: Time-dependent 1 H-NMR experiments revealed that atranorin (5) from lichen M. leucotyliza decomposed into atraric acid (1) and methyl haemmatommate (2) in methanol. Four components were identified from M. leucotyliza: 1, 2, usnic acid (4), and 5, and their respective contents were determined using qHNMR. The percentages (w/w) of 1, 2, and 4 in the methanol extract were calculated as 5.66%, 0.69%, and 0.90%, while those of 1, 4, and 5 in the acetone extract were 1.70%, 1.68%, and 19.11%, respectively. CONCLUSION: We used qHNMR to effectively analyse quantitative compositional variations in two different M. leucotyliza extracts and reliably determined the chemical conversion of the unstable compound atranorin.

Synthesis, α-glucosidase inhibition, and molecular docking studies of novel N-substituted hydrazide derivatives of atranorin as antidiabetic agents.

A series of novel N-substituted hydrazide derivatives were synthesized by reacting atranorin, a compound with a natural depside structure (1), with a range of hydrazines. The natural product and 12 new analogues (2-13) were investigated for inhibition of α-glucosidase. The N-substituted hydrazide derivatives showed more potent inhibition than the original. The experimental results were confirmed by docking analysis. This study suggests that these compounds are promising molecules for diabetes therapy. Molecular dynamics simulations were carried out with compound 2 demonstrating the best docking model using Gromac during simulation up to 20 ns to explore the stability of the complex ligand-protein. Furthermore, the activity of all synthetic compounds 2-13 against a normal cell line HEK293, used for assessing their cytotoxicity, was evaluated.

The Comprehensive Roles of ATRANORIN, A Secondary Metabolite from the Antarctic Lichen Stereocaulon caespitosum, in HCC Tumorigenesis.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most deadly genetic diseases, but surprisingly chemotherapeutic approaches against HCC are only limited to a few targets. In particular, considering the difficulty of a chemotherapeutic drug development in terms of cost and time enforces searching for surrogates to minimize effort and maximize efficiency in anti-cancer therapy. In spite of the report that approximately one thousand lichen-derived metabolites have been isolated, the knowledge about their functions and consequences in cancer development is relatively limited. Moreover, one of the major second metabolites from lichens, Atranorin has never been studied in HCC. Regarding this, we comprehensively analyze the effect of Atranorin by employing representative HCC cell lines and experimental approaches. Cell proliferation and cell cycle analysis using the compound consistently show the inhibitory effects of Atranorin. Moreover, cell death determination using Annexin-V and (Propidium Iodide) PI staining suggests that it induces cell death through necrosis. Lastly, the metastatic potential of HCC cell lines is significantly inhibited by the drug. Taken these together, we claim a novel functional finding that Atranorin comprehensively suppresses HCC tumorigenesis and metastatic potential, which could provide an important basis for anti-cancer therapeutics.

Enhanced accumulation of biologically active compounds in lichens with potential functional food applications.

Lichens have great potential as food, functional food additives or flavourings. The presence of specific substances with multiple biological activities is one of the characteristics of lichens. However, research on lichens as a food source or functional food additive is limited. The present study simulated, for the first time, the potential bioaccessibility of active compounds from 6 lichen species in simulated gastric and intestinal conditions. An in vitro digestion showed that the lichen substances had different bioaccessibility and stability during digestion. It was found that the application of some metabolic modulators significantly altered the accumulation of metabolites in most species. In addition, the study demonstrated the antimicrobial activity of the tested extracts as well as of 14 isolated lichen metabolites. These multi-directional studies demonstrate the potential of lichens in terms of their use as antimicrobial functional food additives.

Atranorin inhibits Zika virus infection in human glioblastoma cell line SNB-19 via targeting Zika virus envelope protein.

BACKGROUND: Zika virus (ZIKV) is a single-stranded RNA flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes. Its infection is associated with neurological complications such as neonatal microcephaly and adult Guillain-Barré syndrome, posing a serious threat to the health of people worldwide. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop effective anti-ZIKV drugs. Atranorin is a lichen secondary metabolite with a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant, etc. However, the antiviral activity of atranorin and underlying mechanism has not been fully elucidated. PURPOSE: We aimed to determine the anti-ZIKV activity of atranorin in human glioma cell line SNB-19 and investigate the potential mechanism from the perspective of viral life cycle and the host cell functions. METHODS: We first established ZIKV-infected human glioma cells (SNB-19) model and used Western Blot, RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and plaque assay to evaluate the anti-ZIKV activity of atranorin. Then we assessed the regulation effect of atranorin on ZIKV induced IFN signal pathway activation by RT-qPCR. Afterward, we introduced time-of-addition assay, viral adsorption assay, viral internalization assay and transferrin uptake assay to define which step of ZIKV lifecycle is influenced by atranorin. Finally, we performed virus infectivity assay, molecular docking and thermal shift assay to uncover the target protein of atranorin on ZIKV. RESULTS: Our study showed that atranorin could protect SNB-19 cells from ZIKV infection, as evidenced by inhibited viral protein expression and progeny virus yield. Meanwhile, atranorin attenuated the activation of IFN signal pathway and downstream inflammatory response that induced by ZIKV infection. The results of time-of-addition assay indicated that atranorin acted primarily by disturbing the viral entry process. After ruling out the effect of atranorin on AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) dependent virus adsorption and clathrin-mediated endocytosis, we confirmed that atranorin directly targeted the viral envelope protein and lowered ZIKV infectivity by thermal shift assay and virus infectivity assay respectively. CONCLUSION: We found atranorin inhibits ZIKV infection in SNB-19 cells via targeting ZIKV envelope protein. Our study provided an experimental basis for the further development of atranorin and a reference for antiviral drug discovery from natural resources.

Linking Lichen Metabolites to Genes: Emerging Concepts and Lessons from Molecular Biology and Metagenomics.

Lichen secondary metabolites have tremendous pharmaceutical and industrial potential. Although more than 1000 metabolites have been reported from lichens, less than 10 have been linked to the genes coding them. The current biosynthetic research focuses strongly on linking molecules to genes as this is fundamental to adapting the molecule for industrial application. Metagenomic-based gene discovery, which bypasses the challenges associated with culturing an organism, is a promising way forward to link secondary metabolites to genes in non-model, difficult-to-culture organisms. This approach is based on the amalgamation of the knowledge of the evolutionary relationships of the biosynthetic genes, the structure of the target molecule, and the biosynthetic machinery required for its synthesis. So far, metagenomic-based gene discovery is the predominant approach by which lichen metabolites have been linked to their genes. Although the structures of most of the lichen secondary metabolites are well-documented, a comprehensive review of the metabolites linked to their genes, strategies implemented to establish this link, and crucial takeaways from these studies is not available. In this review, I address the following knowledge gaps and, additionally, provide critical insights into the results of these studies, elaborating on the direct and serendipitous lessons that we have learned from them.

Atranorin, a Secondary Metabolite of Lichens, Exhibited Anxiolytic/Antidepressant Activity in Wistar Rats.

Atranorin (ATR) is one of lichens' many known secondary metabolites. Most current studies have investigated the various effects of ATR in vitro and only sporadically in vivo. The latest data indicate that ATR may have anxiolytic/antidepressive effects. This study aimed to analyze the potential of ATR in a depression-like state in male Wistar rats. Pregnant females were stressed by restricting their mobility in the final week of pregnancy three times a day for 45 min each, for three following days. After birth, progeny aged 60 days was stressed repeatedly. The male progeny was divided into three groups as follows: CTR group as a healthy control (n = 10), DEP group as a progeny of restricted mothers (n = 10), and ATR group as a progeny of restricted mothers, treated daily for one month with ATR (n = 10; 10 mg/kg of body weight, p.o.). Our results show that ATR acts as an antioxidant and markedly changes animal behavior. Concomitantly, hippocampal neurogenesis increases in the hilus and subgranular zone, together with the number of NeuN mature neurons in the hilus and CA1 regions. Our results indicate a potential antidepressant/anxiolytic effect of ATR. However, further studies in this area are needed.

Biochemical Properties of Atranorin-Induced Behavioral and Systematic Changes of Laboratory Rats.

Atranorin (ATR) is a secondary metabolite of lichens. While previous studies investigated the effects of this substance predominantly in an in vitro environment, in our study we investigated the basic physicochemical properties, the binding affinity to human serum albumin (HSA), basic pharmacokinetics, and, mainly, on the systematic effects of ATR in vivo. Sporadic studies describe its effects during, predominantly, cancer. This project is original in terms of testing the efficacy of ATR on a healthy organism, where we can possibly attribute negative effects directly to ATR and not to the disease. For the experiment, 24 Sprague Dawley rats (Velaz, Únetice, Czech Republic) were used. The animals were divided into four groups. The first group (n = 6) included healthy males as control intact rats (♂INT) and the second group (n = 6) included healthy females as control intact rats (♀INT). Groups three and four (♂ATR/n = 6 and ♀ATR/n = 6) consisted of animals with daily administered ATR (10mg/kg body weight) in an ethanol-water solution per os for a one-month period. Our results demonstrate that ATR binds to HSA near the binding site TRP214 and acts on a systemic level. ATR caused mild anemia during the treatment. However, based on the levels of hepatic enzymes in the blood (ALT, ALP, or bilirubin levels), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), or liver histology, no impact on liver was recorded. Significantly increased creatinine and lactate dehydrogenase levels together with increased defecation activity during behavioral testing may indicate the anabolic effect of ATR in skeletal muscles. Interestingly, ATR changed some forms of behavior. ATR at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight is non-toxic and, therefore, could be used in further research.

Lecanoric acid mediates anti-proliferative effects by an M phase arrest in colon cancer cells.

Lichen extracts containing, among other compounds, depsides such as evernic acid, atranorin, and lecanoric acid possess anti-proliferative effects. We aimed to identify lichen metabolites that are responsible for the observed anti-proliferative effects. We performed cytotoxicity, cell colony, cell cycle and apoptosis assays in various cell lines or primary immune cells. We analyzed several cell cycle proteins and apoptosis-related proteins to gain insights into the underlying mechanism. All depsides reduced the viability of the tested cell lines (HCT-116, HEK293T, HeLa, NIH3T3, RAW246.7) in a cell line-dependent manner with lecanoric acid being the most effective. Atranorin did not influence the cell cycle or colony formation in HCT-116 cells, but induced apoptosis in HCT-116 cells. Evernic acid showed no anti-proliferative effects. Lecanoric acid inhibited cell colony formation already at 0.03 µg/ml in HCT-116 cells and induced a G2 cell cycle block in several cell lines. Moreover, lecanoric acid arrested the cell cycle, presumably in the M phase, since expression of cyclin B1 and phosphorylated histone H3 was upregulated, whereas the inactive cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) was reduced in HCT-116 cells. Most importantly, cell death induced by lecanoric acid was more prominent in cancer cells than in primary human immune and endothelial cells. In conclusion, lecanoric acid seems to mediate its anti-proliferative effects via arrest of cells in the M phase. Our data suggest lecanoric acid may be a potential new candidate for anti-cancer therapy, because it has anti-proliferative effects on cancer cell lines, and does not affect primary immune cells.

Linking a Gene Cluster to Atranorin, a Major Cortical Substance of Lichens, through Genetic Dereplication and Heterologous Expression.

The depside and depsidone series compounds of polyketide origin accumulate in the cortical or medullary layers of lichen thalli. Despite the taxonomic and ecological significance of lichen chemistry and its pharmaceutical potentials, there has been no single piece of genetic evidence linking biosynthetic genes to lichen substances. Thus, we systematically analyzed lichen polyketide synthases (PKSs) for categorization and identification of the biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) involved in depside/depsidone production. Our in-depth analysis of the interspecies PKS diversity in the genus Cladonia and a related Antarctic lichen, Stereocaulon alpinum, identified 45 BGC families, linking lichen PKSs to 15 previously characterized PKSs in nonlichenized fungi. Among these, we identified highly syntenic BGCs found exclusively in lichens producing atranorin (a depside). Heterologous expression of the putative atranorin PKS gene (coined atr1) yielded 4-O-demethylbarbatic acid, found in many lichens as a precursor compound, indicating an intermolecular cross-linking activity of Atr1 for depside formation. Subsequent introductions of tailoring enzymes into the heterologous host yielded atranorin, one of the most common cortical substances of macrolichens. Phylogenetic analysis of fungal PKS revealed that the Atr1 is in a novel PKS clade that included two conserved lichen-specific PKS families likely involved in biosynthesis of depsides and depsidones. Here, we provide a comprehensive catalog of PKS families of the genus Cladonia and functionally characterize a biosynthetic gene cluster from lichens, establishing a cornerstone for studying the genetics and chemical evolution of diverse lichen substances. IMPORTANCE Lichens play significant roles in ecosystem function and comprise about 20% of all known fungi. Polyketide-derived natural products accumulate in the cortical and medullary layers of lichen thalli, some of which play key roles in protection from biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., herbivore attacks and UV irradiation). To date, however, no single lichen product has been linked to respective biosynthetic genes with genetic evidence. Here, we identified a gene cluster family responsible for biosynthesis of atranorin, a cortical substance found in diverse lichen species, by categorizing lichen polyketide synthase and reconstructing the atranorin biosynthetic pathway in a heterologous host. This study will help elucidate lichen secondary metabolism, harnessing the lichen's chemical diversity, hitherto obscured due to limited genetic information on lichens.

Atranorin, an antimicrobial metabolite from lichen Parmotrema rampoddense exhibited in vitro anti-breast cancer activity through interaction with Akt activity.

Atranorin (ATR), lichenized secondary metabolite and depside molecule with several biological potentials such as antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, wound healing and photoprotective activities. Cytotoxic reports of ATR are documented in several cancer cells and in vivo models but its molecular interaction studies are poorly understood. Therefore, in this present investigation, we have used the in silico studies with biological validation of the molecular targets for the anti-breast cancer mechanism of ATR. The molecular docking studies with the breast cancer oncoproteins such as Bcl-2, Bax, Akt, Bcl-w and Bcl-xL revealed the highest interaction was observed with the Akt followed by Bax, Bcl-xL and Bcl-2 & least with the Bcl-w proteins. The cytotoxicity studies showed ATR selectively inhibited MDA MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells in differential and dose-dependent manner with the IC50 concentration of 5.36 ± 0.85 µM and 7.55 ± 1.2 µM respectively. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that ATR significantly inhibited ROS production and significantly down-regulated the anti apoptotic Akt than Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and Bcl-w proteins with a significant increase in the Bax level and caspases-3 activity in the breast cancer cells when comparison with Akt inhibitor, ipatasertib. In vitro biological activities well correlated with the molecular interaction data suggesting that atranorin had higher interaction with Akt than Bax and Bcl-2 but weak interaction with Bcl-w and Bcl-xL. In this present study, the first time we report the interactions of atranorin with molecular targets for anti-breast cancer potential. Hence, ATR represents the nature-inspired molecule for pharmacophore moiety for design in targeted therapy.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Therapeutic Effects of Atranorin towards the Proliferation of Babesia and Theileria Parasites.

Atranorin (ATR), is a compound with multidirectional biological activity under different in vitro and in vivo conditions and it is effective as an antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal and anti-inflammatory agent. In the current study, the in vitro as well as in vivo chemotherapeutic effect of ATR as well as its combined efficacy with the existing antibabesial drugs (diminazene aceturate (DA), atovaquone (AV) and clofazimine (CF)) were investigated on six species of piroplasm parasites. ATR suppressed B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. divergens, B. caballi and T. equi multiplication in vitro with IC50 values of 98.4 ± 4.2, 64.5 ± 3.9, 45.2 ± 5.9, 46.6 ± 2.5, and 71.3 ± 2.7 µM, respectively. The CCK test was used to examine ATR's cytotoxicity and adverse effects on different animal and human cell lines, the main hosts of piroplasm parasites and it showed that ATR affected human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF), mouse embryonic fibroblast (NIH/3T3) and Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cell viability in a dose-related effect with a moderate selective index. The combined efficacy of ATR with DA, CF, and AV exhibited a synergistic and additive efficacy toward all tested species. In the in vivo experiment, ATR prohibited B. microti multiplication in mice by 68.17%. The ATR-DA and ATR-AV combination chemotherapies were more potent than ATR monotherapy. These results indicate the prospects of ATR as a drug candidate for piroplasmosis treatment.

DFT and QTAIM based investigation on the structure and antioxidant behavior of lichen substances Atranorin, Evernic acid and Diffractaic acid.

In this study, the structural and antioxidant behavior of the three lichen-derived natural compounds such as atranorin (AT), evernic acid (EV) and diffractaic acid (DF) has been investigated in the gas and water phase using both B3LYP and M06-2X functional level of density functional theory (DFT) with two different basis sets 6-31+G (d, p) and 6-311++G (d, p). The intramolecular H-bonds (IHB) strength, aromaticity and noncovalent interactions (NCI) have been computed with the help of the quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM). This calculation gives major structural characteristics that indirectly influence the antioxidant behavior of the investigated compounds. The spin density (SD) delocalization of the unpaired electron is found to be the main stabilizing factor of neutral and cationic radical species. The main mechanisms, recommended in the literature, for the antioxidant action of polyphenols as radical scavengers such as hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer followed by proton transfer (SET-PT), and sequential proton loss electron transfer (SPLET), were examined. The result shows that the HAT and SPLET mechanism are the most conceivable one for the antioxidant action of this class of compounds in gas and water phase respectively. Preference of SPLET over HAT in water phase is due to the significantly lower value of proton affinity (PA) compared to the bond dissociation enthalpy (BDE) value. This study reveals that O2-H3, O9-H26 and O4-H45 respectively are the most favored site of AT, EV and DF for homolytic as well as heterolytic OH bond breaking.

Amelioration of anti-hepatotoxic effect by Lichen rangiferinus against alcohol induced liver damage in rats.

BACKGROUND: Reindeer lichen, Lichen rangiferinus syn. or Cladonia rangiferina (L.) F. H. Wigg. (Cladoniaceae) has been traditionally reported as a remedy to treat fever, colds, arthritis as well as convulsions, liver infections, coughs, constipation, and tuberculosis. The current study is aimed at rectification of alcohol induced liver damage by the use of L. rangiferinus extract. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to compare some biochemical markers for liver injury and hematological indices in normal untreated rats and treated rats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was performed using male Wistar rats. Animals were categorized into five groups, negative control group (normal diet only), treated groups (2 groups were lichen treated along with 10% ethanol & 1 group was only ethanol treated) and positive control group (Silymarin+10% ethanol) of six animals in each group. Biochemical markers for liver injury and hematological indices of all animals were measured using standard diagnostic tools. The animals were then sacrificed and livers were sent to the pathology lab for histopathological analysis. RESULTS: Lichen extract showed a significant restoration of altered biochemical parameters towards normal in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. The total phenolic and flavonoid content of the LRE was found to be 21.78 µg PE/mg of extract and 5.13 µg RE/mg of extract respectively. The IC50 values for atranorin and fumarprotocetraric acid were found to be 128.48 and 218.46 mg/mL respectively. Reducing power of the extract was found to be quite significant. After administration of lichen extract, endothelial cells were less injured around central vein and number of fat vacuoles was also lesser in hepatocytes. CONCLUSION: Conclusively, treatment with lichen extract assuages alcohol-related damage and guards hepatic tissue from alcohol-induced toxicity.