Avocado-derived extracellular vesicles loaded with ginkgetin and berberine prevent inflammation and macrophage foam cell formation.

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of aorta, remains the major cause of morbidity and mortality among cardiovascular disease patients. Macrophage foam cell formation and inflammation are critically involved in early stages of atherosclerosis, hence chemopreventive targeting of foam cell formation by nutraceuticals may be a promising approach to curbing the progression of atherosclerosis. However, many nutraceuticals including berberine and ginkgetin have low stability, tissue/cell penetration and bioavailability resulting in inadequate chemotherapeutic effects of these nutraceuticals. We have used avocado-derived extracellular vesicles (EV) isolated from avocado (EVAvo ) as a novel carrier of nutraceuticals, in a strategy to alleviate the build-up of macrophage foam cells and expression of inflammatory genes. Our key findings are: (i) Avocado is a natural source of plant-derived EVs as shown by the results from transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and NanoBrook Omni analysis and atomic force microscopy; (ii) EVAvo are taken up by macrophages, a critical cell type in atherosclerosis; (iii) EVAvo can be loaded with high amounts of ginkgetin and berberine; (iv) ginkgetin plus berberine-loaded EVAvo (EVAvo(B+G) ) suppress activation of NFκB and NLRP3, and inhibit expression of pro-inflammatory and atherogenic genes, specifically Cd36, Tnfα, Il1ß and Il6; (v) EVAvo(B+G) attenuate oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced macrophage foam cell formation and (vi) EVAvo(B+G) inhibit oxLDL uptake but not its cell surface binding during foam cell formation. Overall, our results suggest that using EVAvo as a natural carrier of nutraceuticals may improve strategies to curb the progression of atherosclerosis by limiting inflammation and pro-atherogenic responses.

Alternate bearing in 'Hass' avocado: fruit load-induced changes in bud auxin homeostasis are associated with flowering repression.

In 'Hass' avocado (Persea americana), fruit presence reduces next season flowering. Recent fruit tree studies proposed that heavy fruit load (HFL) generates an auxin (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA) signal in the buds that represses flowering. However, the nature of this signal remains unknown. Here, we investigated the effect of avocado HFL on bud IAA accumulation and flowering transition. We found that IAA-aspartate and IAA-glutamate conjugate levels were significantly higher in buds from fully loaded ('on') than low-loaded ('off') trees, hinting that free IAA levels were higher in the former. Expression analysis showed that coinciding with flowering reduction, HFL induced the floral repressor PaTFL1, and suggested that accumulation of IAA in buds as imposed by HFL was associated with its conjugation to aspartate and glutamate and resulted both from de novo IAA synthesis and from reduced IAA export. Accordingly, experiments involving radiolabelled [14C]IAA demonstrated that HFL reduced shoot basipetal IAA transport. Finally, we confirmed the negative effects of IAA on flowering, showing that IAA and polar auxin transport blocker (2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid) treatments delayed 'off' trees' inflorescence development, reducing their inflorescence axis and inducing PaTFL1 expression. Together, our data indicate that avocado HFL generates IAA signalling in buds that induces PaTFL1, leading to repression of inflorescence development.

A new application of avocado oil to enrich the biological activities of polycaprolactone membranes for tissue engineering.

The metabolites synthesized by plants to protect themselves serves as natural antimicrobial agents used in biomaterials. In this study, avocado oil (AO), was incorporated as a plant source and natural antimicrobial agent into polycaprolactone (PCL) membranes. The effects of varying AO ratios (25, 50, and 100 wt%.-PCL@25AO, PCL@50AO, PCL@100AO) on PCL membrane morphology, chemical structure, wettability, antimicrobial activity, and cell viabilities were investigated. It was demonstrated that the AO acts as a pore-forming agent in solvent-casted membranes. Young's modulus of the membranes varied between 602.68 and 31.92 MPa and more flexible membranes were obtained with increasing AO content. Inhibition zones of AO were recorded between 7.86 and 13.97 mm against clinically relevant microbial strains including bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Antimicrobial activity of AO was retained in PCL membranes at all ratios. Resazurin assay indicated that PCL@25AO membranes were cytocompatible with mouse fibroblast cells (L929 cell line) on day 6 showing 72.4% cell viability with respect to neat PCL membranes. Viability results were supported by scanning electron microscopy images and DAPI staining. The overall results of this study highlight the potential of PCL@25AO membranes as a biomaterial with antimicrobial properties, cytocompatibility, and mechanical strength suitable for various biomedical applications.

Isohydric stomatal behaviour alters fruit vascular flows and minimizes fruit size reductions in drought-stressed 'Hass' avocado (Persea americana Mill.).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Plant water status is important for fruit development, because many fleshy fruits contain large amounts of water. However, there is no information on vascular flows of Persea americana 'Hass' avocado. The aims of this research were to explore the impact of drought stress on the water relationships of the 'Hass' avocado plant and its fruit growth. METHODS: Well-watered and water-stressed 'Hass' avocado plants were compared. Over 4 weeks, water flows through the shoot and fruit pedicel were monitored using external sap flow gauges. Fruit diameter was monitored using linear transducers, and stomatal conductance (gs), photosynthesis (A) and leaf and stem water potentials (Ñ°leaf and Ñ°stem) were measured to assess the response of the plants to water supply. KEY RESULTS: In well-watered conditions, the average water inflow to the shoot was 72 g day-1. Fruit water inflow was 2.72 g day-1, but there was water loss of 0.37 g day-1 caused by the outflow (loss back into the tree) through the vascular tissues and 1.06 g day-1 from the fruit skin. Overall, fruit volume increased by 1.4 cm3 day-1. In contrast, water flow into fruit of water-stressed plants decreased to 1.88 g day-1, with the outflow increasing to 0.61 g day-1. As a result, increases in fruit volume were reduced to 0.4 cm3 day-1. The values of A, gs and sap flow to shoots were also reduced during drought conditions. Changes in the hourly time-courses of pedicel sap flow, fruit volume and stem water potential during drought suggest that the stomatal response prevented larger increases in outflow from the fruit. Following re-watering, a substantial recovery in growth rate was observed. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, a reduction in growth of avocado fruit was observed with induced water deficit, but the isohydric stomatal behaviour of the leaves helped to minimize negative changes in water balance. Also, there was substantial recovery after re-watering, hence the short-term water stress did not decrease avocado fruit size. Negative impacts might appear if the drought treatment were prolonged.

Non-destructive estimation of flesh oil content in avocado (Persea americana Mill.) using fluorescence images from 365-nm UV light excitation.

The flesh oil content (OC) is a crucial commercial indicator of avocado maturity and directly correlates with its nutritional quality. To meet export standards and optimize edible characteristics, avocados must be harvested at the appropriate stage of physiological maturity. The significant variability in OC during maturation, without any external morphological indicators, poses a longstanding challenge. Currently, harvesting maturity is optimized through time-consuming, destructive laboratory methods like freeze-drying and chemical extraction, which use representative samples to estimate the maturity of entire orchards. In this study, for the first time, we employed fluorescence imaging of avocado skin using 365-nm UV polarized light excitation to estimate the OC in the 'Bacon' avocado cultivar. We developed a surface fluorescence index that strongly correlates with OC, achieving correlation coefficients up to - 0.91. Our non-destructive and rapid approach achieved a cross-validation accuracy with an R2 value of 0.81, enabling the classification of avocados with low and high OC. This pioneering method shows considerable potential for further improvement and refinement. This study lays the groundwork for developing a portable, cost-effective, and real-time method for non-destructive in situ monitoring of avocado OC in the field and its integration into large-scale post-harvest grading systems.

Activated carbon from avocado seed as sorbent phase for microextraction technologies: activation, characterization, and analytical performance.

According to green analytical chemistry principles, the use of agricultural byproducts as sorbent phases is an interesting topic due to their lignocellulosic origin, as they are biodegradable and inexpensive. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in which avocado seed and avocado seed activated carbon are proposed as sustainable sorbents for solid-phase microextraction technologies, which were used to assess the proof of concept. Rotating disk sorptive extraction (RDSE) was used as a model technology and ibuprofen (Ibu) and 1-hydroxy-ibuprofen (1-OH-Ibu) as representative analytes. It was found that activated carbon (AC) prepared at 600 °C with an impregnation ratio (raw material/activating agent (ZnCl2), w/w) of 1:1.2 had better extraction efficiency than other ACs obtained at different temperatures, impregnation ratios, and activating agents (K2CO3). Characterization revealed several differences between natural avocado seed, biochar prepared at 600 °C, and selected AC since the typical functional groups of the natural starting material begin to disappear with pyrolysis and increasing the surface area and pore volume, suggesting that the main interactions between analytes and the sorbent material are pore filling and π-π stacking. By using this AC as the sorbent phase, the optimal extraction conditions in RDSE were as follows: the use of 50 mg of sorbent in the disk, 30 mL of sample volume, pH 4, 90 min of extraction time at a rotation velocity of the disk of 2000 rpm, and methanol as the elution solvent. The extracts were analyzed via gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The method provided limits of detection of 0.23 and 0.07 µg L-1 and recoveries of 81% and 91% for Ibu and 1-OH-Ibu, respectively. When comparing the extraction efficiency of the selected activated carbon with those provided by Oasis® HLB and C18 in RDSE, nonsignificant differences were observed, indicating that avocado seed activated carbon is a suitable alternative to these commercial materials.

Avocado intake and cardiometabolic risk factors in a representative survey of Australians: a secondary analysis of the 2011-2012 national nutrition and physical activity survey.

BACKGROUND: Avocados are a rich source of nutrients including monounsaturated fats, dietary fibre and phytochemicals. Higher dietary quality is reported in studies of consumers with higher avocado intakes. The present study aimed to examine avocado consumption and cardiometabolic risk measures in a representative sample of Australian adults. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis was performed using Australian Health Survey 2011-2013 (n = 2,736 observations). Day 1 24-hour recall data was used to examine reported avocado intake (whole avocados and avocado-containing products excluding avocado oil) and cardiometabolic risk measures (LDL, HDL, and total cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B, HbA1c, plasma glucose, systolic and diastolic blood pressure). T-tests and chi square analyses were conducted between low (5.21 [95% CI: 4.63, 5.79] grams/day) and high (44.11 [95% CI: 35.89, 52.33] grams/day) consumers of avocado. RESULTS: 14.7% of Australians were 'avocado consumers' (n = 403 observations). Mean avocado intake was 24.63 (95% CI: 20.11, 29.15) grams per day, with a median intake of 10.40 (IQR: 4.49-26.00) grams per day for those considered 'avocado consumers'. Consumers of avocados had a lower BMI and waist circumference (each, p ≤ 0.001), lower plasma glucose level (p = 0.03), and higher HDL cholesterol (p ≤ 0.001) when compared with non-consumers. A trend towards lower plasma glucose, HbA1c (each, p = 0.04) and higher dietary fibre intake (p = 0.05) was found between high and low consumers of avocado. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests favourable outcomes for avocado intake and cardiometabolic characteristics of consumers. Future studies should explore glucose homeostasis using a clinical trial design to understand potential relationships between avocado intake and cardiometabolic risk factors.

Microbial dynamics and quality characteristics of spontaneously fermented salamis produced by replacing pork fat with avocado pulp.

The aim of this study was to develop a novel and healthier fermented meat product by replacing pork fat with avocado pulp (AVP) during salami production. Experimental salamis were produced under laboratory conditions by substituting pork fat with AVP partially (10-AVP) and totally (20-AVP), while control salamis (CTR) remained AVP-free. The microbial composition of control and experimental salamis was assessed using a combined culture-dependent and -independent approach. Over a 20-days ripening period, lactic acid bacteria, coagulase-negative staphylococci, and yeasts dominated the microbial community, with approximate levels of 9.0, 7.0 and 6.0 log CFU/g, respectively. Illumina technology identified 26 taxonomic groups, with leuconostocs being the predominant group across all trials [constituting 31.26-59.12 % of relative abundance (RA)]. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed changes in fatty acid composition and volatile organic compounds due to the substitution of pork fat with AVP. Specifically, monounsaturated fatty acids and terpene compounds increased, while saturated fatty acids and lipid oxidation products decreased. Although AVP influenced the sensory characteristics of the salamis, the highest overall satisfaction ratings were observed for the 10-AVP salamis. Consequently, substituting pork fat with AVP emerges as a viable strategy for producing healthier salamis and diversifying the meat product portfolio.

Biological Control of Avocado Branch Blight Caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae Using Bacillus velezensis.

In recent years, avocado branch blight has gradually become one of the major diseases causing mortality of avocado trees, which seriously affects the economic development of avocado planting regions. In order to investigate the cause of the disease, the pathogens were isolated from the interroot of avocado trees with the onset of the disease and identified as Lasiodiplodia theobromae. At the same time, three Bacillus velezensis strains, YK194, YK201, and YK268, with better antagonistic effects and high stability against L. theobromae, were isolated from the rhizospheric soil of healthy avocado plants. The results of branch experiments and field trials showed that the avocado leaves as well as branches treated with the strains YK194, YK201, and YK268 did not develop disease, and the incidence of avocado trees was significantly reduced. In the branch experiments, the biological control effect of the strains YK194, YK201, and YK268 reached 62.07, 52.70, and 72.45%, respectively. In the field experiments, it reached 63.85, 63.43, and 73.86%, respectively, which indicated that all these three strains possessed good biological control effects on avocado branch blight. Further investigation on the mechanism of action of antagonistic strains revealed that B. velezensis YK268 could produce lipopeptides, namely, surfactin, fengycin, and iturin, which could significantly inhibit the spore germination of L. theobromae. Consequently, these three isolates have potential as biocontrol agents against L. theobromae.

Identity, Pathogenicity, and Genetic Diversity of Lasiodiplodia Species Associated with Stem-End Rot of Avocado in China.

Stem-end rot (SER) causes brown necrotic lesions in the pulp near the base of the fruit pedicel and is one of the most devastating postharvest diseases of avocados in all avocado-growing regions of the world. China's avocado industry is growing very rapidly, and the planting area is expanding, but little is known about the pathogens and genetic diversity of avocado SER. To determine the causal agents of SER, avocado fruits were sampled from the main avocado-producing areas in China during 2020 and 2021. Fungal isolates were obtained from SER symptomatic avocado fruits and identified by morphology combined with phylogenetic analysis of internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-α (EF1-α), and ß-tubulin (TUB2) gene sequences. All 101 isolates belonged to Lasiodiplodia spp.; four Lasiodiplodia species were identified, namely, L. pseudotheobromae (59.41%), L. theobromae (24.75%), L. mahajangana (7.92%), and L. euphorbiaceicola (1.98%); and six others are classified as Lasiodiplodia sp. (5.94%). There were only slight morphological differences in colonies and conidia of these four species of Lasiodiplodia. The pathogenicity tests showed symptoms of SER, and 92.08% of the isolates exhibited a high level of virulence on avocado (disease index >70), related to the disease severity on avocado fruits. All tested isolates grew well under the temperature ranging from 23 to 33°C. There was a significant difference in mycelial growth between the four species of Lasiodiplodia after treatment with high or low temperatures. The growth of L. pseudotheobromae was the fastest at 13 to 18°C but was the lowest at 38°C (P < 0.05). The red pigment could be produced by all tested isolates after culturing for 7 days at 38°C. The mycelial growth rate was the fastest on PDA medium, and the slowest on the OMA medium but promoted spore formation (P < 0.05). In addition, the genetic diversity of pathogenic Lasiodiplodia species associated with SER collected from avocado, mango, guava, and soursop fruits was determined. A total of 74 isolates were clustered into four main ISSR groups by the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean analysis, and the classification of this group was related to the host. Extensive diversity was detected in the Lasiodiplodia populations. The diverse geographical origins and host species significantly influenced the population differentiation, and most of the genetic variation occurred within populations (P < 0.001). This is the first study to identify the major pathogens of avocado SER in China, survey their occurrence and pathogenicity, and include a comparative analysis of genetic diversity with Lasiodiplodia spp. causing SER on other fruit hosts. Collectively, the Lasiodiplodia species complex affecting avocado showed high pathogenicity and diversity, while L. pseudotheobromae was the most frequently isolated species in China. The results of this study provide insights into the aspects of the epidemic of SER disease caused by Lasiodiplodia species, which will help in developing strategies for the management and control of SER in avocado.

Oviposition biology, behavior, and avocado cultivar preferences of Heilipus lauri Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Heilipus lauri is a specialist avocado seed feeding weevil native to parts of México and is an invasive pest in Colombia. This weevil is considered an incursion risk because possible unintended introductions into areas outside of its native range can result in establishment, which threatens avocado production in invaded regions. Despite being a well-recognized pest of avocados, relatively little is known about oviposition biology, behavior, and cultivar preferences of this weevil. Field studies in commercial Hass avocado orchards in México and laboratory studies in a quarantine facility in California (USA) indicated that H. lauri prefers to oviposit into middle and bottom thirds of fruit. In the laboratory, an average of 1.7 eggs (range 1-6 eggs) are laid over a 24-h period in oviposition chambers by individual females. Conspecifics add eggs to these clutches, with up to 17 eggs being recorded in 1 oviposition chamber. This finding suggests that H. lauri does not use an oviposition deterring pheromone. Female weevils readily oviposit in artificial holes representing mechanical wounds on fruit. In comparison to the commercially dominant Hass variety, fruit from Lamb Hass and G22, a native Guatemalan variety, and to a lesser extent Gem, may be less preferred for oviposition when females have a choice of fruit in which to oviposit. Videography studies indicated that H. lauri exhibits predominantly diurnal activity with respect to oviposition behaviors, feeding, and walking.

Combined Analysis of Transcriptome and Metabolome Provides Insights in Response Mechanism under Heat Stress in Avocado (Persea americana Mill.).

Plants generate a range of physiological and molecular responses to sustain their growth and development when suffering heat stress. Avocado is a type of tropical fruit tree with high economic value. Most avocado cultivars delete, wither, or even die when exposed to heat stress for a long time, which seriously restricts the introduction and cultivation of avocados. In this study, samples of a heat-intolerant variety ('Hass') were treated under heat stress, and the transcriptomics and metabolomics were analyzed, with the expectation of providing information on the variety improvement and domestication of avocados. The differentially expressed genes identified using transcriptome analysis mainly involved metabolic pathways such as plant hormone signal transduction, plant-pathogen interaction, and protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum. Combined transcriptome and metabolome analysis indicated that the down-regulation of Hass.g03.10206 and Hass.g03.10205 in heat shock-like proteins may result in the reduced Trehalose and Sinapoyl aldehyde content. Metabolomics analysis results indicated that the decrease in Trehalose and Sinapoyl aldehyde content may be an important factor for heat intolerance. These results provide important clues for understanding the physiological mechanisms of adaptation to heat stress in avocados.

Synthesis and Isolation of Phenol- and Thiol-Derived Epicatechin Adducts Prepared from Avocado Peel Procyanidins Using Centrifugal Partition Chromatography and the Evaluation of Their Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity.

Polyphenols from agro-food waste represent a valuable source of bioactive molecules that can be recovered to be used for their functional properties. Another option is to use them as starting material to generate molecules with new and better properties through semi-synthesis. A proanthocyanidin-rich (PACs) extract from avocado peels was used to prepare several semi-synthetic derivatives of epicatechin by acid cleavage in the presence of phenol and thiol nucleophiles. The adducts formed by this reaction were successfully purified using one-step centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) and identified by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. The nine derivatives showed a concentration-dependent free radical scavenging activity in the DPPH assay. All compounds were also tested against a panel of pathogenic bacterial strains formed by Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 7644 and 19115), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 9144), Escherichia coli (ATCC 11775 and 25922), and Salmonella enterica (ATCC 13076). In addition, adducts were tested against two no-pathogenic strains, Limosilactobacillus fermentum UCO-979C and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus UCO-25A. Overall, thiol-derived adducts displayed antimicrobial properties and, in some specific cases, inhibited biofilm formation, particularly in Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 7644). Interestingly, phenolic adducts were inactive against all the strains and could not inhibit its biofilm formation. Moreover, depending on the structure, in specific cases, biofilm formation was strongly promoted. These findings contribute to demonstrating that CPC is a powerful tool to isolate new semi-synthetic molecules using avocado peels as starting material for PACc extraction. These compounds represent new lead molecules with antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.

Progress in the treatment of Osteoarthritis with avocado-soybean unsaponifiable.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the leading causes of joint dysfunction and disability in the elderly, posing serious social problems and a huge socio-economic burden. Existing pharmacological treatments have significant drawbacks, and searching for an effective pharmacological intervention is an urgent priority. Recent studies have demonstrated the chondroprotective, anabolic, and anti-catabolic properties of avocado-soybean unsaponifiable (ASU), a natural plant extract made from avocado and soybean oils, consisting of the remainder of the saponified portion of the product that cannot be made into soap. The main components of ASU are phytosterols, beta-sitosterol, canola stanols, and soya stanols, which are rapidly incorporated into cells. Studies have confirmed the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and analgesic properties of phytosterols. ASU slows down the progression of OA primarily by inhibiting pathways involved in the development of OA disease. ASU prevents cartilage degradation by inhibiting the release and activity of matrix metalloproteinases and by increasing the tissue inhibition of these catabolic enzymes; ASU is also involved in the inhibition of the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) which is a transcriptional inhibitor that regulates the inflammatory response of chondrocytes. NF-κB is a transcription factor that regulates the inflammatory response of chondrocytes, and inhibition of the transfer of the transcription factor NF-κB from the cytoplasm to the nucleus regulates the transcription of many pro-inflammatory factors. By appealing to the mechanism of action and thus achieving anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic, and pro-synthetic effects on cartilage tissues, AUS is clinically responsive to the reduction of acute pain and OA symptom progression. This paper aims to summarize the studies on the use of avocado-soybean unsaponifiable in the pharmacological treatment of osteoarticular.

Development of Functional Composite Edible Films or Coatings for Fruits Preservation with Addition of Pomace Oil-Based Nanoemulsion for Enhanced Barrier Properties and Caffeine for Enhanced Antioxidant Activity.

The aim of this study was to develop functional composite edible films or coatings for fruit preservation by the addition of bioactive components in combinations that have not yet been thoroughly studied, according to the relevant literature. Edible films were initially composed of (i) chitosan (CH), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and beta-cyclodextrin (CD) (50%-37.5%-12.5% ratio), and (ii) hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and beta-cyclodextrin (CD) (50%-37.5%-12.5% ratio). The bioactive components incorporated (5, 10 and 15% v/v) were as follows: (i) pomace oil-based nanoemulsion (NE) aiming to enhance barrier properties, and (ii) caffeine (C), aiming to enhance the antioxidant activity of films, respectively. Indeed, NE addition led to very high barrier properties (low oxygen and water vapor permeability), increased flexibility and reduced color. Furthermore, the contribution of these coatings to fresh strawberries' preservation under cold storage was investigated, with very promising results concerning weight loss, color difference, and preservation of fruit moisture and quantity of O2 and CO2 inside the packages. Additionally, C addition led to very high antioxidant activity, reduced color and improved barrier properties. Finally, the contribution of these coatings to avocado's preservation under cold storage was investigated, with very encouraging results for color difference, hardness and peroxide value of the fruit samples.

Life Cycle Assessment of an Avocado: Grown in South Africa-Enjoyed in Europe.

Food production is known to have significant environmental impacts, with the main contributors residing in the farming and transportation life cycle phases. Of the various food products transported around the world, avocados have increasingly gained attention as a high-commodity superfood. Avocados require specific climatic and agricultural conditions for farming, with the most fertile land and conditions located outside Europe. Consequently, most avocados consumed in Europe are imported over vast geographical distances, with little information available to quantify the environmental impacts of this imported superfood. This paper aims to present the most detailed life cycle assessment results of an avocado cultivated, grown and harvested in the Limpopo Province of South Africa and exported to the European market for sale and consumption. A life cycle assessment was developed for the farming, harvesting, handling, packaging, ripening, transportation, and carbon sequestration potential of the avocado, and it was used to conduct a holistic life cycle assessment. Input data was obtained through an 18-month data collection campaign across the relevant stakeholders. A baseline 'business-as-usual' scenario is focused on throughout this study, and scope for optimisation is identified for each life cycle phase where applicable, accompanied by uncertainty analyses. Results show a total carbon input of 904.85 kg CO2e/tonne. Mitigating this, 521.88 kg CO2e/tonne is offset, resulting in a net carbon footprint of 382.97 kg CO2e/tonne with uncertainty ranges of -23.22 to +58.69 kg CO2e/tonne, normalised to 57.45 g CO2e/avocado grown in South Africa and sold in Europe. The environmental impacts of the avocado industry under consideration are largely mitigated by the "nature first" philosophy of the farming and logistics enterprises, which have made significant investments in reducing emissions. Sensitivity analyses indicate that implementing large-scale renewable energy, using alternative packaging instead of cardboard, and selling avocados unripened could further enable the farming enterprise to achieve Net Zero objectives. These measures could reduce baseline emissions from 382.97 kg CO2e/tonne to a theoretical -68.54 kg CO2e/tonne, representing a 117.9% decrease. Although this study does not quantify climate change impacts, qualitative analyses suggest that climate change will have a net negative effect on the avocado industry in South Africa. These regions, typically located in micro-climates, are projected to become wetter and warmer, adversely affecting crop phenology, pest control, road conditions, management complexity, farmer livelihoods, and food security. The study recommends large-scale implementation of the optimisation strategies identified to achieve Net Zero objectives and the development of proactive climate change mitigation strategies to enhance the resilience of avocado supply chains to future stressors. These insights are crucial for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and consumers aiming to promote sustainability in the avocado market.

Looking into the lipid profile of avocado and byproducts: Using lipidomics to explore value-added compounds.

Consumer priorities in healthy diets and lifestyle boosted the demand for nutritious and functional foods as well as plant-based ingredients. Avocado has become a food trend due to its nutritional and functional values, which in turn is increasing its consumption and production worldwide. Avocado edible portion has a high content of lipids, with the pulp and its oil being rich in monounsaturated fatty acids and essential omega - 3 and omega - 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). These fatty acids are mainly esterified in triacylglycerides, the major lipids in pulp, but also in minor components such as polar lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids). Polar lipids of avocado have been overlooked despite being recently highlighted with functional properties as well. The growth in the industry of avocado products is generating an increased amount of their byproducts, such as seed and peels (nonedible portions), still undervalued. The few studies on avocado byproducts pointed out that they also contain interesting lipids, with seeds particularly rich in polar lipids bearing PUFA, and thus can be reused as a source of add-value phytochemical. Mass spectrometry-based lipidomics approaches appear as an essential tool to unveil the complex lipid signature of avocado and its byproducts, contributing to the recognition of value-added lipids and opening new avenues for their use in novel biotechnological applications. The present review provides an up-to-date overview of the lipid signature from avocado pulp, peel, seed, and its oils.

Co-Processed Crystalline Solids of Ivermectin with Span® 60 as Solubility Enhancers of Ivermectin in Natural Oils.

Despite being discovered over five decades ago, little is still known about ivermectin. Ivermectin has several physico-chemical properties that can result in it having poor bioavailability. In this study, polymorphic and co-crystal screening was used to see if such solid-state modifications can improve the oil solubility of ivermectin. Span® 60, a lipophilic non-ionic surfactant, was chosen as co-former. The rationale behind attempting to improve oil solubility was to use ivermectin in future topical and transdermal preparations to treat a range of skin conditions like scabies and head lice. Physical mixtures were also prepared in the same molar ratios as the co-crystal candidates, to serve as controls. Solid-state characterization was performed using X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The FTIR spectra of the co-crystal candidates showed the presence of Span® 60's alkyl chain peaks, which were absent in the spectra of the physical mixtures. Due to the absence of single-crystal X-ray data, co-crystal formation could not be confirmed, and therefore these co-crystal candidates were referred to as co-processed crystalline solids. Following characterization, the solid-state forms, physical mixtures and ivermectin raw material were dissolved in natural penetration enhancers, i.e., avocado oil (AVO) and evening primrose oil (EPO). The co-processed solids showed increased oil solubility by up to 169% compared to ivermectin raw material. The results suggest that co-processing of ivermectin with Span® 60 can be used to increase its oil solubility and can be useful in the development of oil-based drug formulations.

Differential Efficacy of Storage Temperature and Postharvest Treatment on Shelf Life and Quality of Avocado Fruit (Persea americana Mill.).

Avocado fruit is a rich source of phytonutrients such as vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, carbohydrates, polyphenols and unsaturated fatty acids. However, due to its climacteric nature, fruits are highly susceptible to storage temperature, resulting in poor shelf life and reduced quality. In the present study avocado fruits (Accession CHES-HA-I/I) were stored at different low temperatures (5, 9 and 12 °C with 90-95% relative humidity, RH) to identify optimum low temperature for cold storage. In a further experiment, avocado fruits were treated with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP, 500 ppb) and chitosan (0.5%) to extend the shelf life with better fruit quality. The results showed that storage temperatures had significant effect on physiological, biochemical and antioxidant activities of fruits. Lower physiological loss in weight (PLW), reduced respiration and ethylene production, and higher carbohydrates, protein and fat content were recorded in fruits stored at 9 °C as compared to 12 °C. Similarly, maximum antioxidant properties in terms of free radical scavenging activity (FRSA) and ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) was found in avocado fruits stored at 9 °C. It was also noticed that chilling injury was developed in fruits stored under 5 °C. In addition, exogenous application of 1-MCP significantly reduced respiration and ethylene production rate at 9 °C and extended the shelf life up to 42 days with better fruit quality and more antioxidant activities. However, chitosan treated and control fruits had shelf life up to 28 and 21 days respectively, with minimum nutritional content. From this study it is concluded that a storage temperature of 9 °C and 1-MCP treatment significantly enhanced the shelf life of avocado fruits with better fruit quality as compared to other storage temperatures (5 and 12 °C) and postharvest treatment (chitosan).

Associations between Metabolomic Biomarkers of Avocado Intake and Glycemia in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Avocado consumption is linked to better glucose homeostasis, but small associations suggest potential population heterogeneity. Metabolomic data capture the effects of food intake after digestion and metabolism, thus accounting for individual differences in these processes. OBJECTIVES: To identify metabolomic biomarkers of avocado intake and to examine their associations with glycemia. METHODS: Baseline data from 6224 multi-ethnic older adults (62% female) included self-reported avocado intake, fasting glucose and insulin, and untargeted plasma proton nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomic features (metabolomic data were available for a randomly selected subset; N = 3438). Subsequently, incident type 2 diabetes (T2D) was assessed over an ∼18 y follow-up period. A metabolome-wide association study of avocado consumption status (consumer compared with nonconsumer) was conducted, and the relationship of these features with glycemia via cross-sectional associations with fasting insulin and glucose and longitudinal associations with incident T2D was examined. RESULTS: Three highly-correlated spectral features were associated with avocado intake at metabolome-wide significance levels (P < 5.3 ∗ 10-7) and combined into a single biomarker. We did not find evidence that these features were additionally associated with overall dietary quality, nor with any of 47 other food groups (all P > 0.001), supporting their suitability as a biomarker of avocado intake. Avocado intake showed a modest association only with lower fasting insulin (ß = -0.07 +/- 0.03, P = 0.03), an association that was attenuated to nonsignificance when additionally controlling for body mass index (kg/m2). However, our biomarker of avocado intake was strongly associated with lower fasting glucose (ß = -0.22 +/- 0.02, P < 2.0 ∗ 10-16), lower fasting insulin (ß = -0.17 +/- 0.02, P < 2.0 ∗ 10-16), and a lower incidence of T2D (hazard ratio: 0.68; 0.63-074, P < 2.0 ∗ 10-16), even when adjusting for BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Highly significant associations between glycemia and avocado-related metabolomic features, which serve as biomarkers of the physiological impact of dietary intake after digestion and absorption, compared to modest relationships between glycemia and avocado consumption, highlights the importance of considering individual differences in metabolism when considering diet-health relationships.