Association Between Gambling Motives, Violence and Early Maladaptive Schemas in Women with Gambling Disorder.

Analyzing why being a victim of violence has led women to have problems with gambling is a field yet to be explored. Thus, the objectives of the present study were (I) analyze the relationship between gambling motives, received psychological violence, and early maladaptive schemas in women; (II) study differences in the study variables in women with and without gambling disorder (GD); (III) analyze the predictive role of violence and schemas in gambling motives; and (IV) analyze the mediating role of schemas in the relationship between violence and gambling motives. The sample comprised 61 women with GD (M = 48.43, SD = 12.78) and 342 women without GD (M = 26.91, SD = 11.47). The results of the present study revealed positive correlations between gambling motives, psychological violence received and early maladaptive schemas. In addition, women with GD scored higher on the study variables. It was also found that early maladaptive schemas based on subjugation and defectiveness may be a vulnerability factor for engaging in gambling to cope with the negative emotions produced by gender violence. From a clinical perspective, knowing the risk factors related to gambling motives in women is crucial to developing effective prevention and intervention programs.

Gambling in a U.S. Census Matched Sample: Examining Interactions between Means and Motives in Predicting Problematic Outcomes.

The influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on risk of Problem Gambling (PG) is complex, particularly given recent evidence that SES should be understood in both objective and subjective terms. Likewise, financial gambling motives have been found to be predictive of PG; however, financial motives are less understood in comparison to other gambling motives. Preliminary findings on SES and gambling points towards a pattern of social inequality in which those with the least financial resources (e.g., income) or that feel financially deprived relative to others (e.g., perceived deprivation) experience greater harm and problems. In a weighted, census matched sample of adults in the U.S. (N = 1,348), the present study examined the interaction between financial gambling motives and income and financial gambling motives and perceived deprivation in predicting PG. Findings provided support for both financial gambling motives and perceived deprivation as robust predictors of PG. Further, results provided unique insights into the role subjective economic standing may play in the relationship between financial motives for gambling and risk of PG.

Cryptocurrency Trading, Day Trading, and Gambling Behavior: Examining the Moderating Effects of Financially Focused Self-Concept and Gambling Motives.

Cryptocurrency and day trading have grown in popularity over the past decade following the creation of the first cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, in 2009. These activities share important features with gambling, including risking money on an uncertain outcome, a chance of monetary rewards, and the potential to experience harm (e.g., financial or relationship problems). However, little is known about cryptocurrency and day trading engagement in the adult population, including associations with gambling behavior, harm, and psychological factors that might moderate these relationships. We analyzed cross-sectional data for n = 822 adults from an online panel in the U.S. to examine: (1) the extent to which cryptocurrency trading, day trading, and gambling are associated, (2) relationships between cryptocurrency trading, day trading, and higher risk gambling behavior, and (3) whether financially focused self-concept and four types of gambling motives moderate these relationships. We found moderate to strong positive intercorrelations between cryptocurrency and day trading, and gambling behavior, including engagement and risk. We identified significant moderating effects of financially focused self-concept, and coping motives for gambling, on the relationship between cryptocurrency trading and gambling frequency, and between day trading and gambling frequency. For the models predicting higher risk gambling status, the only significant moderators were financially focused self-concept for the day trading model, and the enhancement motive for the cryptocurrency and day trading models. Our results have important implications for understanding interrelationships between gambling-adjacent activities and more traditional gambling forms, as well as the moderating roles of key psychosocial concepts in these relationships.

Looking at Sex Differences in Gambling Disorder: The Predictive Role of the Early Abandonment Schema, Gambling Motives and Alexithymia in Depression.

A growing body of research indicates differences between men and women with gambling disorder. However, although alexithymia, gambling motives or abandonment have been associated with GD, women's clinical profile remains unexplored. This study aims, firstly, to explore mean differences in gambling motives (i.e. enhancement, coping and social [SOC]), the early maladaptive abandonment schema, alexithymia and depression in women and men with GD. Secondly, to analyse the correlation between the aforementioned variables as a function of sex. Thirdly, to examine the predictive role of gambling motives, early abandonment schema and alexithymia in depression as a function of sex. Lastly, to analyse the mediating role of COP between the early maladaptive abandonment schema and depression in women with GD, and the mediating role of ENH and the early maladaptive abandonment schema between alexithymia and depression in men with GD. The sample comprised 108 adults with GD diagnosis, of whom 60 were women and 48 were men. Regression and mediation analyses were carried out to explore possible sex differences in GD, through the SPSS programme. Results showed that depressive symptoms are predicted by alexithymia in men with GD and by the early maladaptive abandonment schema in women with GD. Regarding mediation analyses, the results suggest that COP mediated the relationship between early abandonment schema and depressive symptoms in females; and ENH and abandonment schema mediated the relationship between alexithymia and depressive symptoms in males. These results provide evidence of the relevance of considering sex differences when establishing therapeutic strategies in GD rehabilitation.

Gambling: Exploring the Role of Gambling Motives, Attachment and Addictive Behaviours Among Adolescents and Young Women.

There is a growing body of research that seeks to understand the aetiology, consequences and risk factors associated with addictive behaviours in youths. However, research examining the specific profile of adolescent females is very limited. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were, firstly, to explore the differences between attachment, gambling motives (social enhancement and coping), positive and negative affect, and addictive behaviours (gambling, drugs, spending, alcohol and video games) in female adolescents with and without risk of gambling problems. Secondly, the relationships between attachment, gambling motives, positive and negative affect and addictive behaviours were analysed in the subsample of female adolescents with problem gambling Thirdly, we examine the predictive role of positive and negative affect, gambling motives, and attachment in the aforementioned addictive behaviours. The sample was composed of 351 adolescents and young women, of which 312 had no risk of gambling and 39 had gambling problems. The results obtained revealed higher scores in drugs, spending, maternal attachment, and all gambling motives in the group of gambling problems. Likewise, analyses showed that the relevance of the predictor variables (attachment, gambling motives, and affect) varied according to the addiction that was taken as a reference point (i.e., gambling, drugs, spending, alcohol and video games).Consequently, the identification of the possible vulnerability factors for each addiction could be useful in the design of prevention and treatment approaches. In addition, the need for integrated and holistic health- and social- care programmes are suggested in terms of sex and age.

Gambling Motives and Offshore Gambling: A Finnish Population Study.

The rise of online gambling has drawn attention towards offshore gambling. Currently there is lack of evidence on reasons and motivations to gamble on offshore gambling sites. This study investigated the general gambling motives of onshore and offshore gamblers, and the reasons to gamble on offshore gambling sites. The study used binary logistic regression model to analyze the data from Finnish Gambling 2019 population survey including adult past-year online gamblers (n = 1,422). The validated measure for problem gambling severity (PGSI, Problem Gambling Severity Index) was used. Furthermore, data-driven qualitative analysis was used to form categories for the reasons to gamble on offshore gambling sites. Offshore gambling was more common among men and younger age groups than among women or older age groups. Offshore gamblers gambled less often for money or worthy causes than onshore gamblers. Furthermore, offshore gamblers had more different types of motives to gamble, they gambled more frequently and had higher problem gambling severity scores (PGSI) than onshore gamblers. Finally, the most common reasons to gamble offshore were: (1) larger game supply and game features, (2) benefits, bonuses, and the usability of the website, and (3) inner motivation. Offshore gambling is characterized with intensity and diversity of gambling behavior and motives, and it poses a risk especially for young men.

Exploring the Predictive Value of Gambling Motives, Cognitive Distortions, and Materialism on Problem Gambling Severity in Adolescents and Young Adults.

Gambling motives and cognitive distortions are thought to be associated because both coping and financial motives to gamble appear to be predictors of gambling related cognitive distortions. Therefore, there is an argument to be made that gambling motives, cognitive distortions, and materialism share common attributes and might be related to problem gambling severity. The present paper aims to examine the relationship between these three variables, both in a clinical and community setting, to see if they can predict gambling severity. A sample of 250 participants from the general population and 31 participants from the clinical population was recruited. The results showed that the clinical sample scored higher on gambling severity, cognitive distortions, materialism, and gambling motives. It also showed that low scores in enhancement motives and higher scores in social motives and gambling related cognitions predicted gambling severity in older gamblers, whereas for younger patients, gambling severity was best predicted by higher scores in materialism and coping motives, and lower scores for enhancement and social motives. In the community sample, gambling severity correlated with gambling related cognitive distortions and with gambling motives (except for social and coping motives within the women subsample). These results testify to the importance of materialism, cognitive distortions, and gambling motives as risk factors for problem gambling both in community and clinical samples.

Gambling Motives: Do They Explain Cognitive Distortions in Male Poker Gamblers?

Gambling behavior is partly the result of varied motivations leading individuals to participate in gambling activities. Specific motivational profiles are found in gamblers, and gambling motives are closely linked to the development of cognitive distortions. This cross-sectional study aimed to predict cognitive distortions from gambling motives in poker players. The population was recruited in online gambling forums. Participants reported gambling at least once a week. Data included sociodemographic characteristics, the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the Gambling Motives Questionnaire-Financial and the Gambling-Related Cognition Scale. This study was conducted on 259 male poker gamblers (aged 18-69 years, 14.3% probable pathological gamblers). Univariate analyses showed that cognitive distortions were independently predicted by overall gambling motives (34.8%) and problem gambling (22.4%) (p < .05). The multivariate model, including these two variables, explained 39.7% of cognitive distortions (p < .05). The results associated with the literature data highlight that cognitive distortions are a good discriminating factor of gambling problems, showing a close inter-relationship between gambling motives, cognitive distortions and the severity of gambling. These data are consistent with the following theoretical process model: gambling motives lead individuals to practice and repeat the gambling experience, which may lead them to develop cognitive distortions, which in turn favor problem gambling. This study opens up new research perspectives to understand better the mechanisms underlying gambling practice and has clinical implications in terms of prevention and treatment. For example, a coupled motivational and cognitive intervention focused on gambling motives/cognitive distortions could be beneficial for individuals with gambling problems.

The Categorical Stability of Gambling Motives Among Community-Recruited Gamblers: A Longitudinal Assessment.

Over the past decade, several motivational models have been proposed to explain the role of motives in gambling disorder. In the model captured by the four-factor Gambling Motives Questionnaire Financial (GMQ-F), gamblers are described as being primarily motivated to gamble for 'coping', 'enhancement', 'social', and 'financial' reasons. Although this model has received significant empirical support; to date, research assessing the role of motives in gambling disorder has been primarily cross-sectional in nature. Thus, the extent to which gambling motives remain stable over time has yet to be explored. In the current study, the stability versus fluidity of self-assessed gambling motives was investigated using the Quinte Longitudinal Study, a longitudinal dataset of gambling behaviour collected over 5 years. Gambling motives of 2795 gamblers were examined over all five annual assessments. The total proportion of gamblers who stayed in the same primary motive category across each of the 5 consecutive assessments was 22%, indicating substantial fluidity in category membership. Substantial movement between categories was seen for each GMQ-F group, as well as an additional group of non-classified motives. Logistic regression analyses suggest that greater resistance to gambling fallacies significantly predicted stability between the baseline assessment and a follow-up 1 year later, but gambling severity did not. Potential limitations in the study design and opportunities for future research are discussed.

An Investigation of the Association Between Shame and Problem Gambling: The Mediating Role of Maladaptive Coping Motives.

Despite often being considered equivalent affective states, shame and guilt have differential associations with problem gambling with only shame showing a strong positive association with problem gambling. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying the shame-problem gambling association. Further, shame and guilt are associated with distinct coping strategies, with shame motivating maladaptive coping (e.g., avoidance, escape) and guilt motivating adaptive coping (e.g., taking corrective action). This study aimed to examine whether maladaptive coping motives for gambling mediate the relationship between shame, but not guilt, and gambling problems. Participants were 196 (126 male) regular gamblers who completed a same and guilt scale, the Problem Gambling Severity Index, and a modified Gambling Motives Questionnaire, which assessed individual motives to engage in gambling for coping, enhancement, or social reasons. Results indicated that coping motives for gambling fully mediated the relationship between shame and problem gambling severity, but did not mediate the association between guilt and problem gambling severity. Experiencing shame contributes to problem gambling as a result of gambling to cope with negative affect. Cultivating more adaptive strategies to cope with shame may be effective in preventing and treating problem gambling.

Gambling Motives in a Representative Swedish Sample of Risk Gamblers.

Motives for gambling have been shown to be associated with gambling involvement, and hence important in the understanding of the etiology of problem gambling. The aim of this study was to describe differences in gambling motives in different subgroups of lifetime risk gamblers, categorized by: age, gender, alcohol- and drug habits and type of game preferred, when considering the level of risk gambling. A random Swedish sample (n = 19,530) was screened for risk gambling, using the Lie/Bet questionnaire. The study sample (n = 257) consisted of the respondents screening positive on Lie/Bet and completing a postal questionnaire about gambling and motives for gambling (measured with the NODS-PERC and the RGQ respectively). When considering the level of risk gambling, motives for gambling were not associated with gender, whereas younger persons gambled for the challenge more often than did older participants. Card/Casino and Sport gamblers played to a greater extent for social and challenge reasons then did Lotto/Bingo-gamblers. EGM-gamblers played more for coping reasons than did Lotto/Bingo gamblers. However, this association turned non-significant when considering the level of risk gambling. Moderate risk gamblers played for the challenge and coping reasons to a greater extent than low risk gamblers motives for gambling differ across subgroups of preferred game and between gamblers with low and moderate risk. The level of risk gambling is intertwined with motives for gambling and should be considered when examining gambling reasons.

Motivational Profiles of Gambling Behavior: Self-determination Theory, Gambling Motives, and Gambling Behavior.

Gambling among young adults occurs at a higher rate than in the general population and is associated with a host of negative consequences. Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that individuals develop general motivational orientations which predict a range of behavioral outcomes. An autonomy orientation portrays a choiceful perspective facilitating personal growth, whereas a controlled orientation represents a chronic proclivity toward external pressures and a general lack of choice. Further, an impersonal orientation is characterized by alack of intention and feeling despondent and ineffective. Controlled orientation has previously been associated with more frequent and problematic gambling. This research was designed to examine gambling motives as mediators of associations between motivational orientations and gambling behaviors. Undergraduates (N = 252) who met 2+ criteria on the South Oaks Gambling Screen participated in a laboratory survey assessing their motivational orientations, gambling motives, and gambling behavior (quantity, frequency, and problems). Mediation analyses suggested that autonomy was negatively associated with gambling problems through lower levels of chasing and escape motives. Further, controlled orientation was associated with more problems through higher levels of chasing and interest motives. Finally, impersonal orientation was negatively associated with amount won through escape motives. Overall, results support exploring gambling behavior and motives using a SDT framework.

The Activation of Reward Versus Relief Gambling Outcome Expectancies in Regular Gamblers: Relations to Gambling Motives.

Gambling outcome expectancies refer to the anticipated outcomes that gamblers expect will occur from gambling (i.e., learned memory associations between gambling cues, behavior, and outcomes). Unlike previous approaches to gambling outcome expectancies that have predominantly focused on the valence of outcome expectancies (positive vs. negative), the present study investigated two specific types of positive gambling outcome expectancies: reward and relief gambling outcome expectancies. Specifically, the primary purpose of the current research was to examine whether gambling prime exposure activates different types of positive gambling outcome expectancies in enhancement- versus coping-motivated gamblers. Fifty adult, community-recruited regular gamblers performed a reaction time (RT) task and completed a self-report expectancy scale, both designed to assess reward and relief gambling outcome expectancies. They also completed the Gambling Motives Questionnaire (Stewart and Zack in Addiction 103:1110-1117 2008) to assess their levels of coping and enhancement motives for gambling. As hypothesized, reward gambling outcome expectancies were more strongly activated by gambling prime exposure than relief outcome expectancies on the RT task for gamblers with high enhancement motives. On the self-report expectancy measure, high enhancement-motivated gamblers endorsed stronger reward gambling outcome expectancies than low enhancement-motivated gamblers, and high coping-motivated gamblers endorsed stronger relief gambling outcome expectancies than low coping-motivated gamblers. Results suggest that automatic activation of reward gambling outcome expectancies is particularly strong for high enhancement-motivated gamblers. Possible reasons for the failure to observe an association between coping gambling motives and automatic relief gambling outcome expectancies are discussed.

A Personality-Based Latent Class Analysis of Emerging Adult Gamblers.

Increases in access to gambling venues have been accompanied by increased gambling behavior among young adults. The present research examined associations among Five Factor Model personality traits, motives for gambling, and gambling behavior and problems using latent class analysis. College students (N = 220) completed online measures of personality and gambling behavior as part of a larger intervention trial. Agreeableness and conscientiousness were negatively associated with indicators of gambling behavior. Low agreeableness and high neuroticism were associated with gambling-specific motives, particularly for less frequently endorsed motives. Personality-based latent class analyses of emerging adult gamblers revealed support for three distinct groups reflecting a resilient personality group, a normative personality group, and a vulnerable personality group, which were further differentiated by gambling behaviors and gambling-specific motives. Associations between personality traits and gambling-specific motives highlight potential heterogeneity among college students who gamble. Together, findings suggest that the correlational and latent class-based analyses, as well as the personality and motivation analyses, present complementary information with respect to the attributes of college student gamblers. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

Cash outs during in-play sports betting: Who, why, and what it reveals.

Cashing out is a popular feature of modern 'in-play' sports betting that allows sports bettors to withdraw a bet before the sporting event on which the bet was placed is finalized. Previous studies have shown that use of the cash out feature is positively related to problem gambling symptomatology. However, little is known about demographic and psychological characteristics of in-play sports bettors who use the cash out feature, or their motivations for use. To fill this knowledge gap, we recruited 224 adults (18 + years) from Ontario who engaged in in-play sports betting in the past three months. Participants completed self-report measures of psychological and gambling-related variables. Participants also provided qualitative responses for their motivations for using the cash out feature. Approximately half (51.8 %) of the participants reported using the cash out feature. No statistically significant demographic differences were found between participants who used and did not use the cash out feature. Participants who used the feature (compared to those who did not) reported higher problematic alcohol and cannabis use, feelings of depression, anxiety, and stress, and were motivated to gamble to make money. The primary reasons for cashing out were to access money immediately, to cut losses, and because cashing out felt like a less risky option. The current findings shed light on underlying psychological vulnerabilities associated with individuals who use the cash out feature, which can inform initiatives to reduce the harms associated with this popular feature of sports betting.

Latent profile analysis of gambling.

Early age of gambling onset, ease of gambling with technological developments and lack of controlling online gambling games have led to unmanageable risk of gambling. Individual-centered approaches play a significant role in managing the risk that gambling poses on public health and discerning the heterogeneity of gambling addiction. Therefore, this study employed Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), one of the individual-centered approaches, to model the interactions across the psychosocial characteristics of gamblers. The study aims to reveal the latent profiles of gambling addiction. Unlike variable-centered approaches, LPA is a contemporary technique that provides objective information regarding individual psychological processes and behaviors. The profile indicators of the study involve psychosocial characteristics such as resilience, motives to gamble (excitement/fun, avoidance, making money, socializing), purposefulness, responsibility and worthiness. Data were collected from 317 volunteers (M = 68.9%; F = 31.1%; mean age = 25.16 ± 6.46) through the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS), Gambling Motives Scale (GMS) and Personal Virtues Scale (PVS). The emerging profiles were defined as adventurous players (14.2%), social gamblers (9.8%), professional gamblers (32.8%), problem gamblers (24.6%) and avoidant gamblers (18.6%). The individual-centered modeling is congruent with the literature on gambling and provides a complementary perspective to understand the heterogeneous structure of gambling. The results are expected to assist mental health professionals in developing educational and clinical intervention programs for gambling behavior. Finally yet importantly, it is recommended that new LPA models be offered through the use of different indicators related to gambling addiction.

A longitudinal study of gambling motives, problem gambling and need frustration.

Gambling motives are an important element in understanding the development of problem gambling, yet most of the recent studies investigating their role in problem gambling have been cross-sectional. This study analyzed the links between gambling motives and problem gambling using a longitudinal study design. The moderating effect of the frustration of basic psychological needs was also assessed. The study sample with 1,022 participants (48.43% female, Mage = 49.50 years) was surveyed at three timepoints (T1-T3) in 6-month intervals. The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) was used to measure problem gambling and need frustration was assessed with The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSFS). The data were analyzed using a multilevel mixed-effects regression model where PGSI was the outcome variable. Gambling motives and need frustration were the predictors while psychological distress (measured with the 5-Item Mental Health Inventory, MHI-5), offshore/onshore online gambling, and socio-demographic factors were used as control variables. All the motives predicted problem gambling individually over time. In contrast, motives to escape, to win money, and to compete along with need frustration predicted problem gambling over time in the full model. In addition, money motive and need frustration had an interaction effect so that higher need frustration combined with money motive predicted more severe gambling problems. The results of this study provide a valuable longitudinal perspective on gambling motives, frustration of basic psychological needs, and gambling problems which can be used to develop and improve treatment efforts and programs of problem gambling.

How gambling motives are associated with socio-demographics and gambling behavior - A Finnish population study.

Background and aims: The aims were to examine how socio-demographics and gambling behavior relate to both primary and additional gambling motives, and whether the gambling motives change during a one-year-period. Methods: The Finnish Gambling Harms Survey data was used. Gambling motives were measured with a categorical question. Gambling severity was measured using the Problem and Pathological Gambling Measure (PPGM). Using the first-wave data including only past-year gamblers (n = 5,684), five logistic regression models were utilized to explore the associations of gambling motives with socio-demographics and gambling behavior. The stability of gambling motives was assessed with McNemar's test using longitudinal data (n = 2,078). Results: Gambling for positive feeling was associated with younger age, high income, high gambling involvement and at-risk gambling. Monetary motive was associated with female gender, high gambling involvement, online or mixed-mode and at-risk gambling. Supporting worthy causes was associated with older age, monthly and weekly gambling, and land-based gambling. Socializing was associated with younger age and gambling occasionally on land-based venues with multiple game types. Finally, the motive to escape was intensified among 25-34-year-olds, homemakers, and those with high gambling involvement and at-risk or problem gambling. Gambling motives remained relatively stable for one year. Discussion and conclusions: Gender and age profiles varied in different motives. Positive feeling, socializing and escape motive was heightened among younger respondents while supporting worthy causes was heightened among the oldest. Women gambled for money more often than men. Escape motive was associated with problem gambling. Longer follow-up is needed to confirm the longitudinal results.

Online Gambling in the Midst of COVID-19: A Nexus of Mental Health Concerns, Substance Use and Financial Stress.

This study examined the emerging impact of COVID-19 on gambling during the first 6 weeks of emergency measures in Ontario, Canada. A cross-sectional online survey of 2005 gamblers, including a sub-sample of 1081 online gamblers (age 18 years and older), was administered to assess risky gambling behaviours and motivations, financial impacts from COVID-19, the influence of COVID-19 on online gambling, mental health concerns and substance use. A series of odds ratio comparisons and measures of association were carried out. Results show significant likelihood of online gambling among those classified as high-risk gamblers (according to the Problem Gambling Severity Index) and those with past experience of online gambling, though migration from land-based gambling was apparent. Among high-risk online gamblers, the most predictive risk factors included moderate and severe anxiety and depression, reduced work hours, being influenced to gamble due to COVID-19, gambling under the influence of cannabis or alcohol and risky gambling motives tied to mental health concerns, including gambling because it helps with nervousness and depression, chasing gambling losses and seeking to earn income. This study has confirmed many of the risk associations presented in emerging COVID-19-related studies and past research on global economic crisis relating to gambling risk, mental health concerns and substance use. However, unlike many past studies, the present paper takes note of all of these elements holistically and provides incremental clarity on online gambling risk factors during the pandemic, specifically.

Associations between financial gambling motives, gambling frequency and level of problem gambling: a meta-analytic review.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Money is central to psychological definitions of gambling, but contemporary accounts are ambiguous regarding the role of financial motives in disordered gambling. The aims of the current research were to obtain meta-analytic weighted effect sizes for zero-order associations of financial motives against gambling frequency and level of problem gambling, as well as partial associations after controlling for other motives (e.g. coping). METHODS: A meta-analysis of the literature through February 2021 was undertaken. Studies were identified from multiple sources (e.g. database search, other researchers). PRISMA standards were followed when screening identified records and extracting relevant data. The data analytic plan was pre-registered. We included 44 cross-sectional studies that involved student, community and clinical samples of people who gamble (sample sizes ranged from 22-5666), using validated self-report measures of financial gambling motives alongside measures of either gambling frequency and/or problem gambling. RESULTS: Financial gambling motives were positively associated with gambling frequency, r = 0.29, 95% CI = [0.21, 0.37], n = 22 738, and level of problem gambling, r = 0.35, 95% CI = [0.31, 0.38], n = 38 204, with moderate effect sizes. Partial associations after controlling for overlapping variance with other gambling motives were also positive (gambling frequency: ß = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.22], n = 13 844; level of problem gambling: ß = 0.18, 95% CI = [0.13, 0.22], n = 28 146), with small-to-moderate effect sizes. Effect sizes were heterogeneous and the extent of heterogeneity was high. Analyses of the zero-order association involving gambling frequency indicated that gambling motives measure (greater for Gambling Motives Questionnaire-Financial) and sample mean age (greater for younger samples) were moderators. No other moderators were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Financial gambling motives appear to be reliably and positively associated with both gambling frequency and level of problem gambling.