Emerging opportunities for C3 inhibition in the eye.

The eye presents a unique opportunity for complement component 3 (C3) therapeutics. Drugs can be delivered directly to specific parts of the eye, and growing evidence has established a pivotal role for C3 in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Emerging data show that C3 may be important to the pathophysiology of other eye diseases as well. This article will discuss the location of C3 expression in the eye as well as the preclinical and clinical data regarding C3's functions in AMD. We will provide a comprehensive review of developing C3 inhibitors for the eye, including the Phase 2 and 3 data for the C3 inhibitor pegcetacoplan as a treatment for the geographic atrophy of AMD. Developing evidence also points toward C3 as a therapeutic target for stages of AMD preceding geographic atrophy. We will also discuss data illuminating C3's relationship to other eye diseases, such as Stargardt disease, diabetic retinopathy, and glaucoma. In addition to being a converging point and centerpiece of the complement cascade, C3 has broad effects as a multifaceted controller of opsonophagocytosis, microglia/macrophage recruitment, and downstream terminal pathway activity. C3 is a crucial player in the pathophysiology of AMD but also seems to have importance in other diseases that are major causes of blindness. Directions for further investigation will be highlighted, as culminating evidence suggests that we may be approaching an era of C3 therapeutics for the eye.

Pathologic vs. protective roles of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 in RPE and photoreceptors in wet vs. dry age-related macular degeneration.

It has previously been reported that antioxidant vitamins can help reduce the risk of vision loss associated with progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of visual impairment among the elderly. Nonetheless, how oxidative stress contributes to the development of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in some AMD patients and geographic atrophy (GA) in others is poorly understood. Here, we provide evidence demonstrating that oxidative stress cooperates with hypoxia to synergistically stimulate the accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), resulting in increased expression of the HIF-1-dependent angiogenic mediators that promote CNV. HIF-1 inhibition blocked the expression of these angiogenic mediators and prevented CNV development in an animal model of ocular oxidative stress, demonstrating the pathological role of HIF-1 in response to oxidative stress stimulation in neovascular AMD. While human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived RPE monolayers exposed to chemical oxidants resulted in disorganization and disruption of their normal architecture, RPE cells proved remarkably resistant to oxidative stress. Conversely, equivalent doses of chemical oxidants resulted in apoptosis of hiPSC-derived retinal photoreceptors. Pharmacologic inhibition of HIF-1 in the mouse retina enhanced-while HIF-1 augmentation reduced-photoreceptor apoptosis in two mouse models for oxidative stress, consistent with a protective role for HIF-1 in photoreceptors in patients with advanced dry AMD. Collectively, these results suggest that in patients with AMD, increased expression of HIF-1α in RPE exposed to oxidative stress promotes the development of CNV, but inadequate HIF-1α expression in photoreceptors contributes to the development of GA.

Long-term Follow-up of a Phase 1/2a Clinical Trial of a Stem Cell-Derived Bioengineered Retinal Pigment Epithelium Implant for Geographic Atrophy.

PURPOSE: To report long-term results from a phase 1/2a clinical trial assessment of a scaffold-based human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) implant in patients with advanced geographic atrophy (GA). DESIGN: A single-arm, open-label phase 1/2a clinical trial approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. PARTICIPANTS: Patients were 69-85 years of age at the time of enrollment and were legally blind in the treated eye (best-corrected visual acuity [BCVA], ≤ 20/200) as a result of GA involving the fovea. METHODS: The clinical trial enrolled 16 patients, 15 of whom underwent implantation successfully. The implant was administered to the worse-seeing eye with the use of a custom subretinal insertion device. The companion nonimplanted eye served as the control. The primary endpoint was at 1 year; thereafter, patients were followed up at least yearly. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Safety was the primary endpoint of the study. The occurrence and frequency of adverse events (AEs) were determined by scheduled eye examinations, including measurement of BCVA and intraocular pressure and multimodal imaging. Serum antibody titers were collected to monitor systemic humoral immune responses to the implanted cells. RESULTS: At a median follow-up of 3 years, fundus photography revealed no migration of the implant. No unanticipated, severe, implant-related AEs occurred, and the most common anticipated severe AE (severe retinal hemorrhage) was eliminated in the second cohort (9 patients) through improved intraoperative hemostasis. Nonsevere, transient retinal hemorrhages were noted either during or after surgery in all patients as anticipated for a subretinal surgical procedure. Throughout the median 3-year follow-up, results show that implanted eyes were more likely to improve by > 5 letters of BCVA and were less likely to worsen by > 5 letters compared with nonimplanted eyes. CONCLUSIONS: This report details the long-term follow-up of patients with GA to receive a scaffold-based stem cell-derived bioengineered RPE implant. Results show that the implant, at a median 3-year follow-up, is safe and well tolerated in patients with advanced dry age-related macular degeneration. The safety profile, along with the early indication of efficacy, warrants further clinical evaluation of this novel approach for the treatment of GA. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Disease Activity and Therapeutic Response to Pegcetacoplan for Geographic Atrophy Identified by Deep Learning-Based Analysis of OCT.

PURPOSE: To quantify morphological changes of the photoreceptors (PRs) and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) layers under pegcetacoplan therapy in geographic atrophy (GA) using deep learning-based analysis of OCT images. DESIGN: Post hoc longitudinal image analysis. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with GA due to age-related macular degeneration from 2 prospective randomized phase III clinical trials (OAKS and DERBY). METHODS: Deep learning-based segmentation of RPE loss and PR degeneration, defined as loss of the ellipsoid zone (EZ) layer on OCT, over 24 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change in the mean area of RPE loss and EZ loss over time in the pooled sham arms and the pegcetacoplan monthly (PM)/pegcetacoplan every other month (PEOM) treatment arms. RESULTS: A total of 897 eyes of 897 patients were included. There was a therapeutic reduction of RPE loss growth by 22% and 20% in OAKS and 27% and 21% in DERBY for PM and PEOM compared with sham, respectively, at 24 months. The reduction on the EZ level was significantly higher with 53% and 46% in OAKS and 47% and 46% in DERBY for PM and PEOM compared with sham at 24 months. The baseline EZ-RPE difference had an impact on disease activity and therapeutic response. The therapeutic benefit for RPE loss increased with larger EZ-RPE difference quartiles from 21.9%, 23.1%, and 23.9% to 33.6% for PM versus sham (all P < 0.01) and from 13.6% (P = 0.11), 23.8%, and 23.8% to 20.0% for PEOM versus sham (P < 0.01) in quartiles 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, at 24 months. The therapeutic reduction of EZ loss increased from 14.8% (P = 0.09), 33.3%, and 46.6% to 77.8% (P < 0.0001) between PM and sham and from 15.9% (P = 0.08), 33.8%, and 52.0% to 64.9% (P < 0.0001) between PEOM and sham for quartiles 1 to 4 at 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: Deep learning-based OCT analysis objectively identifies and quantifies PR and RPE degeneration in GA. Reductions in further EZ loss on OCT are even higher than the effect on RPE loss in phase 3 trials of pegcetacoplan treatment. The EZ-RPE difference has a strong impact on disease progression and therapeutic response. Identification of patients with higher EZ-RPE loss difference may become an important criterion for the management of GA secondary to AMD. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.

Phase 1 Study of JNJ-81201887 Gene Therapy in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety and tolerability of a single intravitreal injection of JNJ-81201887 (JNJ-1887) in patients with geographic atrophy (GA) secondary to advanced dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD). DESIGN: Phase 1, open-label, single-center, first-in-human clinical study. PARTICIPANTS: Adult patients (≥50 years of age) with GA secondary to AMD in the study-treated eye (treated eye) with Snellen best-corrected visual acuity of 20/200 or worse in the treated eye (20/80 or worse after the first 3 patients), a total GA lesion size between 5 and 20 mm2 (2-8 disc area), and best-corrected visual acuity of 20/800 or better in fellow, nontreated eye were included. METHODS: Patients (n = 17) were enrolled sequentially into low-dose (3.56 × 1010 viral genome/eye; n = 3), intermediate-dose (1.07 × 1011 viral genome/eye; n = 3), and high-dose (3.56 × 1011 viral genome/eye; n = 11) cohorts without steroid prophylaxis and assessed for safety and tolerability over 24 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Safety and tolerability outcomes included assessment of ocular and nonocular treatment-emergent adverse events (AEs) over 24 months. Secondary outcomes included GA lesion size and growth rate. RESULTS: Baseline patient characteristics were consistent with the disease under study, and all enrolled patients demonstrated foveal center-involved GA. JNJ-81201887 was well-tolerated across all cohorts, with no dose-limiting AEs. No serious or systemic AEs related to study intervention occurred. Overall, 5 of 17 patients (29%) experienced 5 events of mild ocular inflammation related to study treatment; examination findings in all resolved, and AEs resolved in 4 of 5 patients after topical steroids or observation. One unresolved vitritis event, managed with observation, occurred in a patient with an unrelated fatal AE. No endophthalmitis or new-onset choroidal neovascularization was reported. Geographic atrophy lesion growth rate was similar among all cohorts over 24 months. For treated eyes in the high-dose cohort, GA lesion growth rate showed continued decline through 24 months, with a reduction in mean square root lesion growth from 0.211 mm at months 0 through 6 to 0.056 mm at months 18 through 24. CONCLUSIONS: All 3 studied doses of JNJ-1887 showed a manageable safety profile through 24 months of follow-up. Further investigation of JNJ-1887 for the treatment of GA is warranted. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Oral Antioxidant and Lutein/Zeaxanthin Supplements Slow Geographic Atrophy Progression to the Fovea in Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

PURPOSE: To determine whether oral micronutrient supplementation slows geographic atrophy (GA) progression in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) and AREDS2, multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trials of oral micronutrient supplementation, each with 2 × 2 factorial design. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 392 eyes (318 participants) with GA in AREDS and 1210 eyes (891 participants) with GA in AREDS2. METHODS: The AREDS participants were randomly assigned to oral antioxidants (500 mg vitamin C, 400 IU vitamin E, 15 mg ß-carotene), 80 mg zinc, combination, or placebo. The AREDS2 participants were randomly assigned to 10 mg lutein/2 mg zeaxanthin, 350 mg docosahexaenoic acid/650 mg eicosapentaenoic acid, combination, or placebo. Consenting AREDS2 participants were also randomly assigned to alternative AREDS formulations: original; no beta-carotene; 25 mg zinc instead of 80 mg; both. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: (1) Change in GA proximity to central macula over time and (2) change in square root GA area over time, each measured from color fundus photographs at annual visits and analyzed by mixed-model regression according to randomized assignments. RESULTS: In AREDS eyes with noncentral GA (n = 208), proximity-based progression toward the central macula was significantly slower with randomization to antioxidants versus none, at 50.7 µm/year (95% confidence interval [CI], 38.0-63.4 µm/year) versus 72.9 µm/year (95% CI, 61.3-84.5 µm/year; P = 0.012), respectively. In AREDS2 eyes with noncentral GA, in participants assigned to AREDS antioxidants without ß-carotene (n = 325 eyes), proximity-based progression was significantly slower with randomization to lutein/zeaxanthin versus none, at 80.1 µm/year (95% CI, 60.9-99.3 µm/year) versus 114.4 µm/year (95% CI, 96.2-132.7 µm/year; P = 0.011), respectively. In AREDS eyes with any GA (n = 392), area-based progression was not significantly different with randomization to antioxidants versus none (P = 0.63). In AREDS2 eyes with any GA, in participants assigned to AREDS antioxidants without ß-carotene (n = 505 eyes), area-based progression was not significantly different with randomization to lutein/zeaxanthin versus none (P = 0.64). CONCLUSIONS: Oral micronutrient supplementation slowed GA progression toward the central macula, likely by augmenting the natural phenomenon of foveal sparing. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.

Critical Dependence on Area in Relationship between ARMS2/HTRA1 Genotype and Faster Geographic Atrophy Enlargement: Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Report Number 33.

PURPOSE: To analyze ARMS2/HTRA1 as a risk factor for faster geographic atrophy (GA) enlargement according to (1) GA area and (2) contiguous enlargement versus progression to multifocality. DESIGN: Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) cohort analysis. PARTICIPANTS: Eyes with GA: 546 eyes of 406 participants. METHODS: Geographic atrophy area was measured from color fundus photographs at annual visits. Mixed-model regression of square root of GA area and proportional hazards regression of progression to multifocality were analyzed by ARMS2 genotype. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change in square root GA area and progression to multifocality. RESULTS: Geographic atrophy enlargement was significantly faster with ARMS2 risk alleles (P < 0.0001) at 0.224 mm/year (95% CI, 0.195-0.252 mm/year), 0.298 mm/year (95% CI, 0.271-0.324 mm/year), and 0.317 mm/year (95% CI, 0.279-0.355 mm/year), for 0 to 2 risk alleles, respectively. However, a significant interaction (P = 0.011) was observed between genotype and baseline area. In eyes with very small area (< 1.9 mm2), enlargement was significantly faster with ARMS2 risk alleles (P < 0.0001) at 0.193 mm/year (95% CI, 0.162-0.225 mm/year) versus 0.304 mm/year (95% CI, 0.280-0.329 mm/year) for 0 versus 1 to 2 risk alleles, respectively. With moderately small (1.9-3.8 mm2) or medium to large (≥ 3.8 mm2) area, enlargement was not significantly faster with ARMS2 risk alleles (P = 0.66 and P = 0.70, respectively). In nonmultifocal GA, enlargement was significantly faster with ARMS2 risk alleles (P = 0.001) at 0.175 mm/year (95% CI, 0.142-0.209 mm/year), 0.226 mm/year (95% CI, 0.193-0.259 mm/year), and 0.287 mm/year (95% CI, 0.237-0.337 mm/year) with 0 to 2 risk alleles, respectively. ARMS2 genotype was not associated significantly with progression to multifocal GA. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between ARMS2/HTRA1 genotype and faster GA enlargement depends critically on GA area: risk alleles represent a strong risk factor for faster enlargement only in eyes with very small area. They increase the growth rate more through contiguous enlargement than progression to multifocality. ARMS2/HTRA1 genotype is more important in increasing risk of progression to GA and initial GA enlargement (contiguously) than in subsequent enlargement or progression to multifocality. These findings may explain some discrepancies between previous studies and have implications for both research and clinical practice. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

An Updated Simplified Severity Scale for Age-Related Macular Degeneration Incorporating Reticular Pseudodrusen: Age-Related Eye Disease Study Report Number 42.

PURPOSE: To update the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) simplified severity scale for risk of late age-related macular degeneration (AMD), including incorporation of reticular pseudodrusen (RPD), and to perform external validation on the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2). DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of 2 clinical trial cohorts: AREDS and AREDS2. PARTICIPANTS: Participants with no late AMD in either eye at baseline in AREDS (n = 2719) and AREDS2 (n = 1472). METHODS: Five-year rates of progression to late AMD were calculated according to levels 0 to 4 on the simplified severity scale after 2 updates: (1) noncentral geographic atrophy (GA) considered part of the outcome, rather than a risk feature, and (2) scale separation according to RPD status (determined by validated deep learning grading of color fundus photographs). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Five-year rate of progression to late AMD (defined as neovascular AMD or any GA). RESULTS: In the AREDS, after the first scale update, the 5-year rates of progression to late AMD for levels 0 to 4 were 0.3%, 4.5%, 12.9%, 32.2%, and 55.6%, respectively. As the final simplified severity scale, the 5-year progression rates for levels 0 to 4 were 0.3%, 4.3%, 11.6%, 26.7%, and 50.0%, respectively, for participants without RPD at baseline and 2.8%, 8.0%, 29.0%, 58.7%, and 72.2%, respectively, for participants with RPD at baseline. In external validation on the AREDS2, for levels 2 to 4, the progression rates were similar: 15.0%, 27.7%, and 45.7% (RPD absent) and 26.2%, 46.0%, and 73.0% (RPD present), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The AREDS AMD simplified severity scale has been modernized with 2 important updates. The new scale for individuals without RPD has 5-year progression rates of approximately 0.5%, 4%, 12%, 25%, and 50%, such that the rates on the original scale remain accurate. The new scale for individuals with RPD has 5-year progression rates of approximately 3%, 8%, 30%, 60%, and 70%, that is, approximately double for most levels. This scale fits updated definitions of late AMD, has increased prognostic accuracy, seems generalizable to similar populations, but remains simple for broad risk categorization. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Small Hyperreflective Retinal Foci as in vivo imaging feature of resident microglia activation in geographic atrophy.

Geographic atrophy (GA), the atrophic late stage of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), is one of the leading causes of vision loss in developed countries. Based on genetic, histological and preclinical studies, the role of the innate immune system in the development and progression of GA is well established. Microglia, the principal resident immune cells, are recognized as key players in innate immunity and contributors to AMD development. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) allows to identify small hyperreflective retinal foci (HRF) with specific features known as aggregates of activated microglial cells as possible in vivo imaging feature of local neuroretinal inflammation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the presence and amount of small HRF in the eyes of patients with different macular atrophic phenotypes. Patients with GA in both eyes (bilateral GA: B-GA group), patients with GA in one eye and macular new vessels (MNV) in the fellow-eye (unilateral GA: U-GA group) and patients with extensive macular atrophy with pseudodrusen (EMAP), a rare and aggressive variant of atrophic AMD, were retrospectively analyzed. HRF, defined as isolated punctiform elements of small dimensions (≤30 µm) with intermediate reflectivity (similar to that of the nerve fiber layer) and without a shadow cone, were manually identified and quantified. The amount of HRF was correlated to best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), GA lesion size, measured both at near infrared reflectance (NIR), and blue wavelength fundus autofluorescence (FAF) images, to some GA features (multifocal versus unifocal GA; presence versus absence of foveal sparing) and to central retinal thickness (CRT). Forty-six patients (26 in the B-GA group, 16 in the U-GA group and 4 in the EMAP group) were studied. Patients with EMAP were younger compared to patients with B-GA and to patients with U-GA (63.5 ± 6.8 years vs 80.4 ± 8.4 years B-GA, and vs 83.3 ± 6.1 years U-GA; p = 0.0004 and p= <0.0001, respectively). Mean BCVA, mean GA area at NIR and at FAF images, foveal sparing and multifocal versus unifocal GA distribution and mean CRT were not significantly different among groups. GA area was wider on NIR versus FAF in all groups, significantly in B-GA and U-GA groups (11.7 ± 7.6 mm2 vs 10.6 ± 7.1 mm2, p = 0.0087 in B-GA; 7.8 ± 9.2 mm2 vs 7.7 ± 9.4 mm2, p = 0.004 in U-GA). The number of HRF was significantly higher in U-GA compared to B-GA and to EMAP (47.4 ± 7.1 vs 31.6 ± 7.3 B-GA and 28.0 ± 4.9 EMAP, p < 0.0001 for both), while mean HRF number did not significantly differ between B-GA and EMAP (p = 0.1960). HRF count correlated only to CRT, positively in B-GA and negatively in U-GA group. The increase of small HRF, which mirrors retinal microglial activation, characterizes eyes with unilateral GA (and MNV in the fellow eye) but not eyes with bilateral GA or EMAP. The role of activated microglia in the retina of GA eyes needs to be better investigated, mainly considering the actual and new therapeutic strategies with which to reduce either the development or progression of the atrophic macular changes.

OCT risk factors for 2-year foveal involvement in non-treated eyes with extrafoveal geographic atrophy and AMD.

PURPOSE: To assess the relationship of optical coherence tomography (OCT) findings and progression to foveal atrophy in a cohort of eyes with extrafoveal geographic atrophy (GA) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) at inclusion. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 45 participants (45 eyes) with extrafoveal GA at baseline and with 2 years of regular follow-ups. Several OCT qualitative features (i.e., presence of foveal flat pigment epithelium detachment with a thin double layer sign [DLS] and reticular pseudodrusen, GA focality) and quantitative measurements (outer retinal layer thickness, retinal pigment epithelium [RPE] to Bruch's membrane [BM] volume, minimum distance from the central foveal circle, and untransformed GA lesion size area) were assessed at baseline. Logistic regression analyses were carried out to identify independent significant predictors and compute odds ratios (ORs) for the risk of the development of atrophy. RESULTS: At month 24, 26 eyes (57.8%) developed atrophy in the foveal central circle, while 11 eyes (24.4%) developed atrophy in the foveal central point. Significant independent predictive features for the development of atrophy in the foveal central circle included foveal outer retinal thickness (OR, 0.867; p = 0.015), minimum distance from the foveal central circle (OR, 0.992; p = 0.022), and foveal thin DLS (OR, 0.044; p = 0.036). The only independent predictive feature for the development of atrophy in the foveal central point was the presence of foveal thin DLS (OR, 0.138; p = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: We identified OCT risk factors for 2-year foveal atrophy in eyes with untreated extrafoveal GA at baseline.

Structural OCT and OCT angiography biomarkers associated with the development and progression of geographic atrophy in AMD.

BACKGROUND: Geographic atrophy (GA) is an advanced, irreversible, and progressive form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Structural optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) have been largely used to characterize this stage of AMD and, more importantly, to define biomarkers associated with the development and progression of GA in AMD. METHODS: Articles pertaining to OCT and OCTA biomarkers related to the development and progression of GA with relevant key words were used to search in PubMed, Researchgate, and Google Scholar. The articles were selected based on their relevance, reliability, publication year, published journal, and accessibility. RESULTS: Previous reports have highlighted various OCT and OCTA biomarkers linked to the onset and advancement of GA. These biomarkers encompass characteristics such as the size, volume, and subtype of drusen, the presence of hyperreflective foci, basal laminar deposits, incomplete retinal pigment epithelium and outer retinal atrophy (iRORA), persistent choroidal hypertransmission defects, and the existence of subretinal drusenoid deposits (also referred to as reticular pseudodrusen). Moreover, biomarkers associated with the progression of GA include thinning of the outer retina, photoreceptor degradation, the distance between retinal pigment epithelium and Bruch's membrane, and choriocapillaris loss. CONCLUSION: The advent of novel treatment strategies for GA underscores the heightened need for prompt diagnosis and precise monitoring of individuals with this condition. The utilization of structural OCT and OCTA becomes essential for identifying distinct biomarkers associated with the initiation and progression of GA.

Prevalence of Age-Related Macular Degeneration in Patients with Chronic Exposure to P2X7R Inhibitors.

PURPOSE: P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is a purinergic cation channel whose activation has been linked with age-related macular degeneration (ARMD). Several nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, zidovudine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC) and abacavir (ABC), have been shown to inhibit P2X7R and improve outcomes in animal models of ARMD. Our aim is to investigate the association between chronic AZT, 3TC, and ABC therapy and ARMD in a clinical setting. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study comparing 445 patients with HIV and confirmed usage of AZT, 3TC, and ABC against 200 patients with HIV without usage of AZT, 3TC, and ABC and 445 non-HIV infected patients. Fundus examination and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-ODT) were used to measure prevalence of early-intermediate stage ARMD, geographic atrophy, and exudative ARMD. RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of early-intermediate stage ARMD between the HIV infected patients with a history of AZT, 3TC, and ABC use and the HIV infected patients without AZT, 3TC, and ABC use (p = 0.887). There was also no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of geographical atrophy (p = 0.062) and exudative AMD (p > 0.999) between the HIV infected patients with a history of AZT, 3TC, and ABC use and non-HIV infected patients. CONCLUSION: We did not find an effect of P2X7R inhibiting antiretrovirals usage on early-intermediate stage ARMD, geographical atrophy, or exudative ARMD. Studies with larger cohort and more rigorous medication history are needed to assess the effects on geographical atrophy or exudative ARMD.

Geographic Atrophy-associated Intraretinal Neovascularization (GAIN): A novel clinical entity.

KEY MESSAGES     : WHAT IS KNOWN : Geographic atrophy could be associated with MNV or other vascular alterations. Intraretinal fluid could be present in GA also without neovascularization. WHAT IS NEW : GAIN is a novel clinical entity characterized by GA and an intraretinal neovascular network. GAIN could be exudative or non-exudative.

Factors associated with loss to follow-up in patients with advanced age-related macular degeneration: A telehealth recall initiative.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with advanced age-related macular degeneration (AMD) frequently experience loss to follow-up (LTFU), heightening the risk of vision loss from treatment delays. This study aimed to identify factors contributing to LTFU in patients with advanced AMD and assess the effectiveness of telephone-based outreach in reconnecting them with eye care. METHODS: A custom reporting tool identified patients with advanced AMD who had not returned for eye care between 31 October 2021 and 1 November 2022. Potentially LTFU patients were enrolled in a telephone outreach programme conducted by a telehealth extender to encourage their return for care. Linear regression analysis identified factors associated with being LTFU and likelihood of accepting care post-outreach. RESULTS: Out of 1269 patients with advanced AMD, 105 (8.3%) did not return for recommended eye care. Patients LTFU were generally older (89.2 ± 8.9 years vs. 87.2 ± 8.5 years, p = 0.02) and lived farther from the clinic (25 ± 43 miles vs. 17 ± 30 miles, p = 0.009). They also had a higher rate of advanced dry AMD (26.7% vs. 18.5%, p = 0.04) and experienced worse vision in both their better-seeing (0.683 logMAR vs. 0.566 logMAR, p = 0.03) and worse-seeing (1.388 logMAR vs. 1.235 logMAR, p = 0.04) eyes. Outreach by a telehealth extender reached 62 patients (59%), 43 through family members or healthcare proxies. Half of the cases where a proxy was contacted revealed that the patient in question had died. Among those contacted directly, one third expressed willingness to resume eye care (20 patients), with 11 scheduling appointments (55%). Despite only two patients returning for in-person eye care through the intervention, the LTFU rate halved to 4.4% by accounting for those patients who no longer needed eye care at the practice. CONCLUSIONS: There is a substantial risk that older patients with advanced AMD will become LTFU. Targeted telephone outreach can provide a pathway for vulnerable patients to return to care.

Choroidal signal hypertransmission on optical coherence tomography imaging: Association with development of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration.

BACKGROUND: To examine the association between large choroidal signal hypertransmission ≥250 µm (LHyperT) on optical coherence tomography (OCT) with the risk of developing geographic atrophy (GA) and compare this risk with those associated with nascent geographic atrophy (nGA). METHODS: Two hundred and eighty eyes from 140 participants with bilateral large drusen and without late age-related macular degeneration (AMD) or nGA at baseline underwent OCT imaging and colour fundus photography (CFP) at 6-monthly intervals up to 5 years. OCT scans were graded for the presence of LHyperT and nGA, and CFPs were graded for the presence of GA. RESULTS: The five-year incidence of LHyperT and nGA were 37% and 27% respectively (p = 0.003), and the two-year probability of their progression to GA were 17% and 40%, respectively (p = 0.002). LHyperT and nGA explained 81% and 91% of the variance in the time to develop GA, respectively (p = 0.032), and they were both associated with a significantly higher rate of GA development compared to eyes without these lesions (adjusted hazard ratio = 110.8 and 183.2, respectively; p < 0.001 for both). CONCLUSIONS: LHyperT and nGA were both high-risk features for GA development, but the latter showed a higher rate of GA progression and explained a significantly greater proportion of the variance in the time to develop GA. As such, nGA may be a more robust surrogate endpoint than LHyperT for the conventional clinical endpoint of CFP-defined GA for intervention trials in the early stages of AMD.

Circulating Anti-Endothelial Cell Antibodies in Patients with Geographic Atrophy Related to Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

Background and Objectives: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of central vision loss among elderly patients, and its dry form accounts for the majority of cases. Although several causes and mechanisms for the development and progression of AMD have previously been identified, the pathogenesis of this complex disease is still not entirely understood. As inflammation and immune system involvement are strongly suggested to play a central role in promoting the degenerative process and stimulating the onset of complications, we aimed to analyze the frequency of serum anti-retinal (ARAs) and anti-endothelial cell antibodies (AECAs) in patients with dry AMD and to determine their relationship with the clinical features of the disease, notably the area of geographic atrophy (GA). Materials and Methods: This study included 41 patients with advanced-stage dry AMD and 50 healthy controls without AMD, matched for gender and age. ARAs were detected by indirect immunofluorescence using monkey retina as an antigen substrate, and the presence of AECAs was determined using cultivated human umbilical vein endothelial cells and primate skeletal muscle. Results: ARAs were detected in 36 (87.8%) AMD patients (titers ranged from 1:20 to 1:320) and in 16 (39.0%) (titers ranged from 1:10 to 1:40) controls (p = 0.0000). Twenty of the forty-one patients (48.8%) were positive for AECAs, while in the control group, AECAs were present only in five sera (10.0%). The titers of AECAs in AMD patients ranged from 1:100 to 1:1000, and in the control group, the AECA titers were 1:100 (p = 0.0001). There were no significant correlations between the presence of AECAs and disease activity. Conclusions: This study demonstrates a higher prevalence of circulating AECAs in patients with dry AMD; however, no correlation was found between the serum levels of these autoantibodies and the area of GA.

Incomplete Retinal Pigment Epithelial and Outer Retinal Atrophy: Longitudinal Evaluation in Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

PURPOSE: To examine the association between incomplete retinal pigment epithelial and outer retinal atrophy (iRORA) on OCT imaging and the subsequent risk of developing geographic atrophy (GA) defined on conventional color fundus photography (CFP) and to compare this with the specific features that define nascent GA (nGA). DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of data from a longitudinal study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 280 eyes from 140 participants with bilateral large drusen without specific nGA-defining features or late age-related macular degeneration (AMD) at baseline. METHODS: OCT imaging and CFP were performed at baseline and then at 6-month intervals for up to 36 months. Eyes that developed neovascular AMD were censored on the day it was detected. OCT volume scans were graded for the presence of iRORA and nGA separately, and CFP images were graded for the presence of GA. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Association with and variance explained in time to GA development. RESULTS: A total of 58 eyes (21%) from 46 participants (33%) had iRORA at baseline, and a further 87 eyes (31%) developed iRORA over the follow-up period. Time-to-event analyses demonstrated that prevalent or incident iRORA was associated with an increased rate of GA development (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 12.1; P = 0.021), as was incident nGA (adjusted HR, 78.6; P < 0.001). However, only the specific nGA features (adjusted P < 0.001), and not iRORA (adjusted P = 0.520), were associated with an increased rate of GA development when both features were included in the same multivariable model. The proportion of variance explained in the time to GA development by iRORA itself (R2 = 43%) was significantly lower than explained by nGA alone (R2 = 91%; P = 0.010). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, iRORA is a significant risk factor for GA development, but its association with GA development appears to be accounted for by the development of the specific features that define nGA. Although requiring replication, these findings provide useful guidance on the relative utility of nGA and iRORA as risk factors for GA and as potential surrogate end points for future interventional studies in the early stages of AMD.

Reticular Pseudodrusen Status, ARMS2/HTRA1 Genotype, and Geographic Atrophy Enlargement: Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Report 32.

PURPOSE: To determine whether reticular pseudodrusen (RPD) status, ARMS2/HTRA1 genotype, or both are associated with altered geographic atrophy (GA) enlargement rate and to analyze potential mediation of genetic effects by RPD status. DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of an Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 cohort. PARTICIPANTS: Eyes with GA: n = 771 from 563 participants. METHODS: Geographic atrophy area was measured from fundus photographs at annual visits. Reticular pseudodrusen presence was graded from fundus autofluorescence images. Mixed-model regression of square root of GA area was performed by RPD status, ARMS2 genotype, or both. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change in square root of GA area. RESULTS: Geographic atrophy enlargement was significantly faster in eyes with RPD (P < 0.0001): 0.379 mm/year (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.329-0.430 mm/year) versus 0.273 mm/year (95% CI, 0.256-0.289 mm/year). Enlargement was also significantly faster in individuals carrying ARMS2 risk alleles (P < 0.0001): 0.224 mm/year (95% CI, 0.198-0.250 mm/year), 0.287 mm/year (95% CI, 0.263-0.310 mm/year), and 0.307 mm/year (95% CI, 0.273-0.341 mm/year) for 0, 1, and 2, respectively. In mediation analysis, the direct effect of ARMS2 genotype was 0.074 mm/year (95% CI, 0.009-0.139 mm/year), whereas the indirect effect of ARMS2 genotype via RPD status was 0.002 mm/year (95% CI, -0.006 to 0.009 mm/year). In eyes with incident GA, RPD presence was not associated with an altered likelihood of central involvement (P = 0.29) or multifocality (P = 0.16) at incidence. In eyes with incident noncentral GA, RPD presence was associated with faster GA progression to the central macula (P = 0.009): 157 µm/year (95% CI, 126-188 µm/year) versus 111 µm/year (95% CI, 97-125 µm/year). Similar findings were observed in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. CONCLUSIONS: Geographic atrophy enlargement is faster in eyes with RPD and in individuals carrying ARMS2/HTRA1 risk alleles. However, RPD status does not mediate the association between ARMS2/HTRA1 genotype and faster enlargement. Reticular pseudodrusen presence and ARMS2/HTRA1 genotype are relatively independent risk factors, operating by distinct mechanisms. Reticular pseudodrusen presence does not predict central involvement or multifocality at GA incidence but is associated with faster progression toward the central macula. Reticular pseudodrusen status should be considered for improved predictions of enlargement rate. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.

Future perspectives for treating patients with geographic atrophy.

PURPOSE: Geographic atrophy (GA) is a late-stage form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) characterized by the expansion of atrophic lesions in the outer retina. There are currently no approved pharmacological treatments to prevent or slow the progression of GA. This review describes the progression and assessment of GA, predictive imaging features, and complement-targeting investigational drugs for GA. METHODS: A literature search on GA was conducted. RESULTS: Expansion of atrophic lesions in patients with GA is associated with a decline in several measures of visual function. GA lesion size has been moderately associated with measures obtained through microperimetry, whereas GA lesion size in the 1-mm diameter area centered on the fovea has been associated with visual acuity. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) can provide 3-dimensional quantitative assessment of atrophy and is useful for identifying early atrophy in GA. Features that have been found to predict the development of GA include certain drusen characteristics and pigmentary abnormalities. Specific OCT features, including hyper-reflective foci and OCT-reflective drusen substructures, have been associated with AMD disease progression. Lesion characteristics, including focality, regularity of shape, location, and perilesional fundus autofluorescence patterns, have been identified as predictors of faster GA lesion growth. Certain investigational complement-targeting drugs have shown efficacy in slowing the progression of GA. CONCLUSION: GA is a progressive disease associated with irreversible vision loss. Therefore, the lack of treatment options presents a significant unmet need. OCT and drugs under investigation for GA are promising future tools for disease management.

The influence of the topographic location of geographic atrophy on vision-related quality of life in nonexudative age-related macular degeneration.

PURPOSE: To examine associations between the topographic distribution of geographic atrophy (GA) and vision-related quality of life (VRQoL). METHODS: This study included 237 eyes from 161 participants in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS). GA lesions were manually delineated with color fundus photographs obtained by the AREDS Research Group and atrophic area was measured in an Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) grid. VRQoL was measured using the National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire (NEI-VFQ). Area of atrophy in the ETDRS grid subfields was correlated with VRQoL by linear regression modeling. RESULTS: The average area of atrophy in the better and worse eye was 3.43mm2 and 7.15mm2 respectively. In multivariable analysis, VRQoL was not associated with total area of atrophy in the better eye (ß, - 0.53; 95% confidence interval [CI], - 1.11 to 0.05; P = 0.07) or worse eye (ß, 0.12; 95% CI, - 0.32 to 0.55; P = 0.59). However, area of atrophy in the central 1-mm-diameter zone of the better eye was significantly associated with VRQoL when the ETDRS subfields were examined individually (ß, - 14.57; 95% CI, - 27.12 to - 2.02; P = 0.023), grouped into quadrants (ß, - 18.35; 95% CI, - 30.03 to - 6.67; P = 0.002), inner and outer zones (ß, - 17.26; 95% CI, - 29.38 to - 5.14; P = 0.006), or vertical and horizontal zones (ß, - 18.97; 95% CI, - 30.18 to - 7.77; P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: In patients with GA, greater area of atrophy in the central 1-mm-diameter zone of the better eye was independently associated with lower VRQoL, while total area of atrophy in the better or worse eye was not.