The sociocultural influences in Lawrence Kohlberg's life: a psychobiography.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was a moral development specialist and moral teacher. He is considered an exceptional individual due to the success he obtained from developing his Theory of Moral Development. Throughout Kohlberg's life, there was a reciprocal influence between Kohlberg's development and the sociocultural influences of his time, guiding his life story. This psychobiography used a longitudinal, single-case research design from the qualitative paradigm, utilising the descriptive-interpretive approach to explore the influences which shaped major life events in Kohlberg's life. This research design enabled the illumination of how sociocultural circumstances shaped various spheres in Kohlberg's life, such as his identity, education, career path and vocational success. This was done through using Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory of Human Development Framework, by including its enmeshed, most up-to-date scientific research design, the Proximal-Person-Context-Time Model.

How the COVID-19 pandemic affects the moral reasoning of pediatric residents and the general population.

BACKGROUND: Kohlberg's theory of moral development asserts that people progress through different stages of moral reasoning as their cognitive abilities and social interactions mature. Individuals at the lowest stage of moral reasoning (preconventional stage) judge moral issues based on self-interest, those with a medium stage (conventional stage) judge them based on compliance with rules and norms, and those at the highest stage (postconventional stage) judge moral issues based on universal principles and shared ideals. Upon attaining adulthood, it can be considered that there is stability in the stage of individuals' moral development; however, the effect of a global population crisis such as the one experienced in March 2020, when the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 pandemic, is unknown. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in the moral reasoning of pediatric residents before and after one year of the COVID-19 pandemic and compare them with a general population group. METHODS: This is a naturalistic quasi-experimental study conducted with two groups, one comprised 47 pediatric residents of a tertiary hospital converted into a COVID hospital during the pandemic and another group comprised 47 beneficiaries of a family clinic who were not health workers. The defining issues test (DIT) was applied to the 94 participants during March 2020, before the pandemic initiated in Mexico, and later during March 2021. To assess intragroup changes, the McNemar-Bowker and Wilcoxon tests were used. RESULTS: Pediatric residents showed higher baseline stages of moral reasoning: 53% in the postconventional group compared to the general population group (7%). In the preconventional group, 23% were residents and 64% belonged to the general population. In the second measurement, one year after the start of the pandemic, the group of residents had a significant decrease of 13 points in the P index, unlike the general population group in which a decrease of 3 points was observed. This decrease however, did not equalize baseline stages. Pediatric residents remained 10 points higher than the general population group. Moral reasoning stages were associated with age and educational stage. CONCLUSIONS: After a year of the COVID-19 pandemic, we found a decrease in the stage of moral reasoning development in pediatric residents of a hospital converted for the care of patients with COVID-19, while it remained stable in the general population group. Physicians showed higher stages of moral reasoning at baseline than the general population.

Evaluation of Moral Reasoning Skills among Dental Students in the Makkah Region, Saudi Arabia.

Introduction: One of the main roles of healthcare educators is to prepare students to make the right ethical decisions. This study evaluated the moral reasoning levels of dental students according to Kohlberg's six-stage moral development system. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in three dental schools in the Makkah region. Senior-year students completed the self-administered Socio-moral Reflection Objective Measure (SROM), which consists of hypothetical moral dilemmas and options that mirror individual reasoning possibilities. SROM results were matched to Kohlberg's six-stage moral development system and associations with demographic variables and perceptions of educational context variables assessed. Results: One hundred and eighty-eight senior students (mean age 23 ± 1.1 years) completed the SROM. Only 34.6% (n = 44) students reached stage four (morality of law and duty to the social order), while most students (63.8%; n = 81) were at stage three (morality of mutual interpersonal expectations); 1.6% (n = 2) were at stage two (the instrumental relativist orientation). No subject achieved stage 5. Attainment of moral reasoning was not associated with demographic or perception of educational context variables. Conclusion: Students demonstrated a relatively low level of moral reasoning. Healthcare educators must review curricula to provide focused training for students to cultivate their moral reasoning skills. Further studies are also needed to confirm and explain this low moral reasoning level in dental students.

Is It Still Double Edged? Not for University Students' Development of Moral Reasoning and Video Game Play.

Previous research with video game play and moral development with adolescents, found both positive and negative relationships. This study aimed to extend this research to explore moral development and video game play with university students. One hundred and thirty-five undergraduate students (M = 20.29, SD = 2.70) took part in an online survey. The results suggested higher moral reasoning for participants who described themselves as gamers and those which do not play, compared those who play but do not identify as gamers. It was suggested that males had higher moral scores and more mature reasoning than females. The results of a regression analysis suggested that there were no significant predictors for moral development from either game play or the demographic variables. The findings suggest that moral development could be less influenced by sex, age, and video game play factors such as video game content and amount of game play, than was previously thought for this age group.

It's Double Edged: The Positive and Negative Relationships Between the Development of Moral Reasoning and Video Game Play Among Adolescents.

Due to the concerns over the effects of video game play, this study investigated adolescents' moral development and their video game play. 166 adolescents aged 11-18 years (M = 13.08, SD = 1.91) attending an English school completed an online survey, which included a measure of moral development and questions regarding video game play. In contrast to previous research, male participants were found to have significantly (p = 0.02) higher moral reasoning scores than females. The results also suggested a transition in moral development, which takes place between the ages of 12-14. The results of moral development and video game played suggested both positive and negative relationships. Regression analysis suggested that there was a significant positive relationship between the more types of game genres played and higher moral scores. Although not significant, the results suggested a trend for the following variables; years playing video games, mature content, engagement, moral narrative, Grand Theft Auto, Call of Duty, and length of time playing video games which all had a negative relationship with moral scores. The implications of these results are discussed with regards to moral education and the variables involved in video game play, including the role of video game content.

Moral decision making in neonatal intensive care.

OBJECTIVE: To gain information about the perspective that neonatal intensive-care unit nurses use to make moral decisions. DESIGN: Descriptive. SETTING: Neonatal intensive-care unit of a large teaching hospital in the midwestern United States. PARTICIPANTS: Convenience sample of 26 female nurses working in a neonatal intensive-care unit. METHOD: Audiotaped, semistructured interviews and demographic questionnaires. RESULTS: The results indicated that most (65%) of the nurses used the care perspective to make moral decisions. A small number (12%) used the justice perspective, and the remaining nurses (23%) used a combined care and justice perspective. CONCLUSIONS: Both the care and justice perspectives were found to be important for understanding how nurses make moral decisions.

Construct validity of the Moral Development Scale for Professionals (MDSP).

The aim of this study was to investigate the construct validity of the Moral Development Scale for Professionals (MDSP) using structural equation modeling. The instrument is a 12-item self-report instrument, developed in the Scandinavian cultural context and based on Kohlberg's theory. A hypothesized simplex structure model underlying the MDSP was tested through structural equation modeling. Validity was also tested as the proportion of respondents older than 20 years that reached the highest moral level, which according to the theory should be small. A convenience sample of 339 nursing students with a mean age of 25.3 years participated. Results confirmed the simplex model structure, indicating that MDSP reflects a moral construct empirically organized from low to high. A minority of respondents >20 years of age (13.5%) scored more than 80% on the highest moral level. The findings support the construct validity of the MDSP and the stages and levels in Kohlberg's theory.

Information integration of Kohlbergian thoughts about consensual sex / Integración de la información de pensamientos Kohlberianos acerca del sexo consentido

The unification of two major approaches to moral judgment is the purpose of the present approach. Kohlberg's well-known stage theory assumes a sequence of discrete stages that underlie all moral judgment. Stage theory recognizes the problem of integrating considerations but gives no way to solve such integration, even with information from any one stage. And, of course, the stage concept denies any significant integration from different stages. Thus, research on moral judgment needs to study the integration problem which can be tested within Anderson's theory of information integration. The main purpose of the present study was to extend this unificationist approach to the issue of sexual morality. A novel task presents information from two very different stages. The results showed that in contrast to discreteness the stage informers were positively correlated in punishment judgments of both genders about consensual sex of juveniles. Furthermore, the subjects integrated considerations from those very different stages also in contrast to the hypothesis that only a single stage was operative at any time.

La unificación de dos enfoques principales para el juicio moral es el propósito de la presente aproximación. La bien conocida Teoría de las etapas del desarrollo según Kohlberg asume una secuencia de etapas discretas que subyacen a todo juicio moral. Dicha teoría de los estadios reconoce el problema de la integración de las consideraciones, pero no da ninguna opción de resolver este problema de integración, siquiera con la información de uno de los estadios. Por supuesto, el concepto de etapa niega cualquier integración significativa de diferentes etapas. Por lo tanto, la investigación sobre el juicio moral debe estudiar el problema de la integración que puede ser probado desde de la Teoría de Integración de la Información de Anderson. El objetivo principal del presente estudio fue extender este enfoque unificador a la cuestión de la moral sexual. Una nueva tarea presenta la información de dos etapas muy diferentes. Los resultados mostraron que en contraste con la propuesta de etapas discretas los estadios de los participantes correlacionaron positivamente con los juicios de castigo de ambos sexos, sobre el sexo consensuado de los menores. Además, los sujetos integraron consideraciones de diferentes etapas, lo cual también contrasta con la hipótesis de que sólo una única etapa era operativa en un momento dado.

Julgamento moral de jovens em diferentes contextos políticos / Moral judgment of young people in different political contexts / El juicio moral de los jóvenes en diferentes contextos políticos

Este trabalho comparou os dados de pesquisas sobre o juízo moral de jovens brasileiros nas décadas de 1970 e 1980 com 97 jovens do ano de 2011 com idade média de 19 anos. Todos responderam ao Moral Judgment Interview - MJI. Os jovens entrevistados em 2011 responderam também a uma pergunta sobre o que é justiça. Os resultados indicaram que os jovens nas décadas de 1970 e 1980 apresentavam um juízo moral convencional, pautado pelas expectativas sociais e manutenção dos valores do grupo de iguais. Atualmente, os jovens apresentam juízo moral pautado pelo respeito às leis e manutenção da ordem social. Uma análise de conteúdo da pergunta sobre o que é justiça revelou concepções avançadas e primitivas. Discutem-se as diferenças encontradas no juízo moral e nas concepções de justiça a partir da interpretação de que o juízo moral voltado para o respeito às leis, à ordem e à autoridade se sobrepõe ao respeito pelos direitos e deveres civis básicos.

This study compared the moral thinking of young Brazilians in the 1970 and 1980, with 97 young of the year 2011 with an average age of 19years. They answered the Moral Judgment Interview-MJI. The youth interviewed in 2011also responded to a question about what is justice. The results indicated that youth in the 1970s and 1980s had a conventional moral thinking guided by social expectations and maintaining the values of the peer group. Currently, young people have moral thinking based on respect of the laws and the maintenance of the social order. A content analysis of the question of what justice is revealed advanced and primitive conceptions. We discuss the differences in moral thought and conceptions of justice based on the interpretation of that moral thinking toward respect for law, order and authority, overlaps the respect for basic civil rights and duties.

Este estudio comparó los datos de investigación sobre el juicio moral de los jóvenes brasileños de los años 1970 y 1980, con el juicio de 97 jóvenes del 2011 con una edad promedio de 19 años. Todos contestaron al Moral Judgment Interview - MJI. Los jóvenes entrevistados en 2011 también respondieron a una pregunta sobre lo que es la justicia. Los resultados indicaron que los jóvenes en los años 1970 y 1980 tuvieron un juicio moral convencional, guiado por las expectativas sociales y el mantenimiento de los valores del grupo de pares. En la actualidad, los jóvenes tienen juicio moral basado en el respeto por las leyes y el mantenimiento del orden social. Un análisis de contenido de la pregunta sobre qué es justicia reveló concepciones avanzadas y primitivas. Se discuten las diferencias encontradas en el juicio moral y las concepciones de justicia con base en la interpretación de que el pensamiento moral hacia el respeto de la ley, el orden y la autoridad se superpone al respeto de los derechos humanos básicos y deberes civiles.

The moral development of medical students: a pilot study of the possible influence of medical education.

Medicine endorses a code of ethics and encourages a high moral character among doctors. This study examines the influence of medical education on the moral reasoning and development of medical students. Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Interview was given to a sample of 20 medical students (41.7% of students in that class). The students were tested at the beginning and at the end of their medical course to determine whether their moral reasoning scores had increased to the same extent as other people who extend their formal education. It was found that normally expected increases in moral reasoning scores did not occur over the 4 years of medical education for these students, suggesting that their educational experience somehow inhibited their moral reasoning ability rather than facilitating it. With a range of moral reasoning scores between 315 and 482, the finding of a mean increase from first year to fourth year of 18.5 points was not statistically significant at the P < or = 0.05 level. Statistical analysis revealed no significant correlations at the P < or = 0.05 level between the moral reasoning scores and age, gender, Medical College Admission Test scores, or grade point average scores. Along with a brief description of Kohlberg's cognitive moral development theory, some interpretations and explanations are given for the findings of the study.

Critical thinking, educational preparation, and development of moral judgment among selected groups of practicing nurses.

The focus of this descriptive study was the relationship between critical thinking, educational preparation, and level of moral judgment in 79 practicing nurses. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Test was used to measure critical thinking; information on the participating nurses' educational preparation was obtained from a personal information sheet. Moral judgment was measured by Rest's Defining Issues Test. The hypothesis that critical thinking would be positively related to moral judgment was tested by Pearson product moment correlation; the obtained coefficient of .5326 was significant at the .001 level. The hypothesis that there would be a difference between professional and technical nurses' moral judgments was tested through a one-way analysis of variance. The F ratio (F [1,77] = 9.6) was significant beyond the .01 level. Data also supported the hypothesis that critical thinking and educational preparation would predict greater variance in moral judgment than either variable alone, which was tested through multiple regression analysis (F [2,75] = 18.3, p = .01). Critical thinking and education together accounted for 32.9 percent of the variance in moral judgment. Implications of the findings are discussed for nursing research, practice, and education.