Clinical ophthalmological diagnostic description of 10 healthy sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) and prevalence of ocular-related presentations in a larger hospital population.

OBJECTIVE: To provide reference values for ocular examination and diagnostics in ophthalmologically normal sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps). To retrospectively determine the prevalence of ocular diseases in sugar gliders presenting to a single institution. ANIMALS: Ten client owned and 106 previously evaluated sugar gliders. PROCEDURE: A descriptive study evaluated sugar gliders presented to Colorado State University's Avian, Exotics, and Zoological Medicine Service (CSU-AEZ) from August-2019 to January-2020. A complete ophthalmic examination including Schirmer tear test II (STT II), phenol red threat test (PRTT), intraocular pressure (IOP) via rebound tonometry, fluorescein, and rose bengal stain was performed under anesthesia. Conjunctival aerobic culture swabs and cytology were collected prior to ophthalmic evaluation. A retrospective review of medical records of sugar gliders presented to CSU-AEZ from 2008 to 2018 for ocular disease was performed. RESULTS: Mean values ± standard deviation for selected diagnostics included the following: STT II: 2.2 ± 6.7 mm/min; PRTT: 0 ± 0 mm/15 s; IOP: 12 ± 2.6 mm Hg. Fluorescein and rose bengal staining highlighted corneal abrasions secondary to tear testing. The three most common conjunctival bacterial isolates cultured were Staphylococcus spp. (3/20, 15%), Coryneform spp. (3/20, 15%), and unidentified Gram-positive cocci (3/20, 15%). Retrospective analysis revealed ocular diseases to be the third most common abnormality resulting in sugar glider presentations (13/106, 12.3%). CONCLUSION: This descriptive study gives reference values for IOP, conjunctival microbiology, and cytology for sugar gliders. STT II and PRTT provide little clinical value in sugar gliders. The retrospective study revealed that ocular abnormalities, often secondary to dental disease, are a common reason for presentation.

Tolerance to high temperature by arboreal mammals using nest boxes in southern Australia.

Nest boxes are used to manage populations of tree-cavity dependent birds and mammals. Concerns have been raised that due to their poor insulative properties nest boxes may cause heat stress and occasionally death during summers of extreme maximum temperatures. Our study investigated whether this nest box heat stress hypothesis applies to two small cavity-dependent mammals (brush-tailed phascogales and sugar gliders). Focusing on days when ambient temperature reached ≥40 °C, we recorded: i) temperatures within occupied nest boxes, ii) temperatures within nearby unoccupied tree cavities, iii) the duration of temperatures of ≥40 °C within nest boxes, iv) whether direct mortality was observed, and v) the relative abundance of these species in nest boxes before and after a very hot summer. When ambient temperature reached ≥40 °C, nest boxes were equivalent to ambient or 1-2 °C cooler, whereas tree cavities were 3-7 °C cooler than ambient. Exposure in nest boxes to temperatures of ≥40 °C lasted an average of 2-8 h. We observed no mortality over 65 records of phascogales and 31 records of gliders in nest boxes on days when ambient reached ≥40 °C. No decline in abundance was recorded after a summer with 11 days of temperatures ≥40 °C, with each species subsequently occupying >40 nest boxes. Our observations suggest these species are tolerant of the high temperatures that occurred. Nonetheless, provision of nest boxes designed to minimise summer heating is recommended.

Microbiological survey of sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) kept as pets in Italy.

The sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) is a small, arboreal, nocturnal, gliding mammalian possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. Exotic marsupials, including sugar gliders, are becoming popular companion pets and, consequently, the risk of potential infections that can be transmitted to humans should be investigated. Data on the role of the sugar glider as a possible carrier of pathogenic and zoonotic bacteria are scarce and fragmentary. Therefore, this study is aimed at evaluating the prevalence of potentially zoonotic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica) in 64 sugar gliders kept as pets in Italy. The highest prevalence of infection pertained to members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, in particular Citrobacter spp. (50%), Enterobacter spp. (28·1%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (15·6%); Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from 10 out of 64 samples (15·6%). All strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae exhibited some level of resistance to multiple antimicrobials (ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and doxycycline). SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results of this study show that sugar gliders may act as carriers of potentially pathogenic agents for humans and other animal species, therefore caution should be exercised in the handling and contact with these animals.

Growth and development of the Mahogany Glider (Petaurus gracilis).

The growth and development of the endangered Mahogany Glider (Petaurus gracilis) was monitored in a captive population at Burleigh Heads, Queensland, Australia. Video surveillance confirmed that the gestation period for this species was 16 days. Morphometric data and developmental milestones were recorded from 10 Mahogany Gliders from birth to weaning. Growth curves were developed for head length, ulna length, tail length, and body weight. Weekly inspections of female pouches revealed the young's eyelid margins were visible by Day 21, the first hair erupted on the bridge of the nose at Day 30, pigmentation of the body developed at Day 63, and they started detaching from the teat intermittently, and the body was covered in short fur by Day 70. The young were left in the nest alone from Days 84 to 87, their eyes opened between Days 84 and 94, and there was a rapid increase in length and density of fur from Day 98 onwards. At Days 101 to 105 of age the young left the nest box with its mother as back young. Weaning occurred from 184 to 187 days. Typically, the reproductive rate was two young per annum per pair, but one pair produced five young in 19 months. Females produced young from 12 months to 7 years of age, males up to 9.4 years of age. The average longevity of Mahogany Gliders in the studbook in 2018 was 11.6 years. This study provides data on the reproductive biology of the Mahogany Glider that will assist in its captive breeding, management, and conservation.

Evaluation of three popular diets fed to pet sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps): Intake, digestion and nutrient balance.

Three diets fed to 12 pair-housed sugar gliders, Petaurus breviceps, were evaluated through 5-day intake and digestion trials following 10-day transitions. Diets 1 and 2 comprised liquid formula mixes with added vegetables and fruit, and Diet 3 comprised extruded pellets and a liquid formula. Diets eaten contained 16 -19% crude protein, 3%-15% crude fat, 10%-11% neutral detergent fibre, 4%-20% starch and 8%-49% sugar (dry basis). Calculated individual dry matter intakes (DMI) ranged from 3.9 to 5.1 g/day, representing 58.2-78.4 kJ/day. DMI was greater for Diet 2 (7.2% BW) vs. Diet 1 (5.6; p = .006) and Diet 3 (4.2% BW; p = .003). Although these differences were no longer detectable on a MBW basis, animals were shown to have gained BW (+14.2 g; p = .03) on Diet 2. In addition to nutrient composition differing widely among diets, DM digestibility (DMD) was higher in Diet 1 (91.2%) compared to Diet 2 (87.3%; p = .03), but DMD for Diet 3 (88.9%) did not differ from other diets. Gliders demonstrated ability to digest a variety of energy substrates, including simple sugars (96%-99%), fats (81%-96%) and starches (79%-98%), as well as substantial insoluble dietary fibre (58%-75%), with significant difference among diets demonstrated for some nutrients. Animals displayed selective feeding behaviours, rejecting insoluble fibre in produce and preferring the lipid-coated exterior of pellets. The diets used appeared to be balanced with respect to energy, protein and macromineral content, but may predispose to iron excess, other mineral imbalances (especially Ca deficiency) and obesity-clinical health issues described for pet gliders. Future focus on concentrations, types and utilization of dietary fibre in natural and captive diets, vitamin D metabolism and trace mineral interactions in sugar gliders would assist diet optimization for this highly gummivorous species.

Dealing with uncertainty in landscape genetic resistance models: a case of three co-occurring marsupials.

Landscape genetics lacks explicit methods for dealing with the uncertainty in landscape resistance estimation, which is particularly problematic when sample sizes of individuals are small. Unless uncertainty can be quantified, valuable but small data sets may be rendered unusable for conservation purposes. We offer a method to quantify uncertainty in landscape resistance estimates using multimodel inference as an improvement over single model-based inference. We illustrate the approach empirically using co-occurring, woodland-preferring Australian marsupials within a common study area: two arboreal gliders (Petaurus breviceps, and Petaurus norfolcensis) and one ground-dwelling antechinus (Antechinus flavipes). First, we use maximum-likelihood and a bootstrap procedure to identify the best-supported isolation-by-resistance model out of 56 models defined by linear and non-linear resistance functions. We then quantify uncertainty in resistance estimates by examining parameter selection probabilities from the bootstrapped data. The selection probabilities provide estimates of uncertainty in the parameters that drive the relationships between landscape features and resistance. We then validate our method for quantifying uncertainty using simulated genetic and landscape data showing that for most parameter combinations it provides sensible estimates of uncertainty. We conclude that small data sets can be informative in landscape genetic analyses provided uncertainty can be explicitly quantified. Being explicit about uncertainty in landscape genetic models will make results more interpretable and useful for conservation decision-making, where dealing with uncertainty is critical.

KLOSSIELLA DULCIS N. SP. (APICOMPLEXA: KLOSSIELLIDAE) IN THE KIDNEYS OF PETAURUS BREVICEPS (MARSUPIALIA: PETAURIDAE).

Two cases of renal klossiellosis were diagnosed by histopathology in pet sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps). In both cases, parasites were associated with tubular dilation and mild interstitial nephritis. Rare schizonts were seen in the proximal convoluted renal tubular epithelium, whereas all other life cycle stages were found within distal convoluted tubule cells or the urinary space of the structures distal to the loop of Henle. Conventional optical and transmission electron microscopies were used to assess the life stages of the parasite. The morphologic characteristics and measurements observed differ from those of previously described species of Klossiella infecting marsupial hosts, and the name Klossiella dulcis n. sp. is hereby proposed. This is the first report of a Klossiella sp. infection in Petaurus breviceps .

Body size and the small branch niche: using marsupial ontogeny to model primate locomotor evolution.

Recently proposed ancestral locomotor and morphological 'stages' leading to the evolution of primates have emphasized small body size, and a transition from a clawed non-grasping stage, to a clawed, grasping stage with clawless opposable hallux, to a fully-nailed primate with grasping extremities. This evolutionary transition was presumably associated with frequent use of the small branch niche. To model elements of these evolutionary transitions, we investigate how body size, substrate size, substrate orientation and grasping morphology interact to influence quadrupedal kinematics within and between ontogenetic samples of two small-bodied marsupials, one arboreal (Petaurus breviceps) and the other mainly terrestrial (Monodelphis domestica). Longitudinal morphometric and kinematic data were collected from four juvenile P. breviceps (33-75 g) and two juvenile M. domestica (18-95 g) walking across poles of three diameters (2.5, 1.0, and 0.5 cm) and three orientations (horizontal, 30° incline, 30° decline). The two species responded similarly to some substrate conditions, but diverged in response to others. Kinematic divergence between the two species reflects Monodelphis' relatively shorter digits, reduced grasping ability and greater need for stabilizing mechanisms on narrow substrates. At a given relative body size or pole orientation, Monodelphis used higher limb duty factors, more limbs in support per stride, lower limb phases, and in some conditions, faster speeds compared with Petaurus. Interspecific differences were the least distinct on declined poles, highlighting the particular challenge of this substrate condition, even for arboreally adapted species. Small-bodied, arboreal primate ancestors would likely have employed the kinematic mechanisms common to our model taxa, but those with enhanced grasping adaptations would most likely not have required the increased level of stabilizing mechanisms exhibited by Monodelphis. Thus, using these two species as locomotor models has underscored the functional importance of grasping extremities in primate origins, even if ancestral primates were very small in body size.

Sugar Glider Pediatrics.

Sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) are small nocturnal marsupials with a unique metabolism and reproductive strategy compared to other common exotic companion mammals. Although there are few reports on the pediatric diseases of sugar gliders, clinicians should be aware of the normal reproductive anatomy, physiology, and rearing of sugar gliders. By recognizing the signs of normal reproduction and joey development, clinicians can identify abnormalities quickly and provide appropriate intervention, as needed.

Chronic mandibular osteomyelitis associated with a novel probable Kocuria sp in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps).

Dental disease in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) is understudied, with only limited clinical and pathological data available. An approximately 7-year-old female sugar glider presented to its primary care veterinarian for a decline in food intake, rapid weight loss and a mass involving the rostral mandible. At necropsy, the mandibular mass effaced most of the rostral mandible and adjacent musculature. Histologically, the mandible was disrupted by nodular infiltrates of variably degenerate neutrophils and macrophages encased in granulomatous inflammation and fibrous connective tissue. Within the neutrophilic cell population were segments of fragmented, necrotic bone and cloud-like colonies of gram-positive cocci. Aerobic culture yielded a heavy, pure growth of a gram-positive coccus morphologically consistent with those identified in the lesions, which was identified as a presumptively novel Kocuria sp by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. This is the first description of Kocuria infection in association with clinically significant pathology in an animal. Although isolated as a pure growth, Kocuria sp cannot be confirmed as the sole cause of lesion formation due to the case chronicity and potential for unculturable, polymicrobial infections. This report adds to our understanding of the clinical and pathological aspects of dental disease in sugar gliders.

Pyometra in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps): surgical treatment and postoperative complications.

A 7-year-old female sugar glider showed a well-defined, homogeneous, hypoechoic mass in the caudal abdominal cavity on ultrasound. Exploratory laparotomy revealed both uteri were severely dilated by viscous, purulent exudate. The patient underwent ovariohysterectomy with removal of bilateral vaginal canals. Antibiotic therapy was initiated postoperatively. Histopathological findings were consistent with suppurative metritis, leading to a clinical diagnosis of pyometra. Despite abscess formation in the uterine stump or central vaginal canal and bilateral renal pelvic/ureter dilations postoperatively, the sugar glider survived more than 270 days. Unfortunately, surgical and medical treatments performed in this case did not prove curative. The outcome of this case highlights the importance of further accumulation of cases to define more appropriate therapies for pyometra in sugar gliders.

First case of hemochromatosis in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps).

A 14-year-old, male sugar glider presented with lethargy, anorexia, diarrhea, and paralysis of the hind limbs, and ultrasonography showed possible liver dysfunction. Some medications were administered, but the animal died 10 months after the first presentation, and a necropsy was performed. Histopathologically, hepatocellular degeneration and necrosis, severe deposition of hemosiderin in Kupffer cells and hepatocytes, bridging fibrosis, and regenerative nodules were observed in the liver. Variably amounts of hemosiderin deposition was observed in the heart, lungs, spleen, and kidney. These findings led to the diagnosis of hemochromatosis. No sugar glider cases with hemochromatosis have been reported. The pathological characteristics of hemochromatosis in this species were documented for the first time. The pathogenesis of hemochromatosis in animals remains unclear, but it has been suggested that some commercially available food for sugar gliders containing excessive amounts of iron and vitamin C may induce the disease.

Are Urban Populations of a Gliding Mammal Vulnerable to Decline?

Small populations are at high risk of extinction, and they are likely to need management intervention. Successful management, however, relies on sufficient long-term demographic data in order to determine whether apparent declines are natural fluctuations or the product of threatening processes. In this study, we monitored a small urban population of squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) in Queensland, Australia, over a 16 year period. A reference population in a larger forest patch was also studied in order to investigate whether its demographic trends were similar. Using mark-recapture data to generate estimates of apparent survival and population size, we found evidence of a decline within the small population but not in the reference population over the monitoring period. We suggest that the influence of multiple factors may have led to the decline, but, ultimately, that the genetic condition of the small population may be responsible. Understanding demographic trends is an important context for management interventions of small populations, although causes of decline need to be identified for successful management. The squirrel glider provides a useful case study for small urban populations and particularly for arboreal mammals.

Establishment of Hematological and Plasma Biochemical Reference Values and Analysis of Risk Factors for Pet Sugar Gliders (Petaurus breviceps) in Taiwan.

Hematological and plasma biochemical examination are crucial in the veterinary care of sugar gliders, which are increasingly popular in Taiwan and the United States. However, published research of the species' reference interval and related influencing factors were rare. The objectives of this study were to establish the hematological and plasma biochemical reference values for captive sugar gliders in Taiwan and to evaluate the influence of factors including age, gender, neuter status, location, season, diet, caging arrangement, and other pets in the household. A total of 42 clinically healthy pet sugar gliders were recruited. Morphometrical measurements and physiological data were collected, and hematological and plasma biochemical examinations were performed. The reference value of each index was calculated using Reference Value Advisor (RVA) software, following the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ASVCP) guidelines. Normality of data distribution was tested, and data transformation was conducted. The parametric method and robust method were used to determine reference limits. Univariate analysis was performed, and multiple regression models were built for each hematological and plasma biochemical parameter. Red blood cell, hematocrit, and hemoglobin levels were higher in males, compared to females, while they were lower in the neutered group, compared to the intact group. Relative neutrophil counts were higher in elder sugar gliders, while relative lymphocyte counts were lower. Aspartate transaminase levels were higher in elder sugar gliders, while albumin levels were lower. Blood urea nitrogen levels were highest in spring. The blood profile and related effects presented in this study can provide useful information for veterinary care in pet sugar gliders.

Genome-Wide SNPs Detect Hybridisation of Marsupial Gliders (Petaurus breviceps breviceps × Petaurus norfolcensis) in the Wild.

Petaurus breviceps and Petaurus norfolcensis have produced hybrids in captivity, however there are no reported cases of Petaurus hybridisation in the wild. This study uses morphological data, mitochondrial DNA, and nuclear genome-wide SNP markers to confirm P. breviceps breviceps × P. norfolcensis hybridisation within their natural range on the central coast of New South Wales, Australia. Morphological data identified a potential hybrid that was confirmed with next-generation sequencing technology and 10,111 genome-wide SNPs. Both STRUCTURE and NewHybrid analyses identified the hybrid as a P. norfolcensis backcross, which suggests an initial F1 hybrid was fertile. The mitochondrial DNA matched that of a P. b. breviceps, indicating that a P. b. breviceps female initially mated with a P. norfolcensis male to produce a fertile female offspring. Our study is an important example of how genome-wide SNPs can be used to identify hybrids where the distribution of congeners overlaps. Hybridisation between congeners is likely to become more frequent as climate changes and habitats fragment, resulting in increased interactions and competition for resources and mates.

Large area used by squirrel gliders in an urban area, uncovered using GPS telemetry.

The squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) is a threatened, gliding marsupial that persists in fragmented landscapes despite its restricted capacity to cross large gaps. As measures to maintain and/or restore suitable habitat depend on knowledge about the species' ecological requirements, we investigated the area used by squirrel gliders in an urban area near Newcastle, Australia. Using GPS telemetry data and the autocorrelated kernel density estimator, we estimated area used to average 10.8 ha and varied from 4.6 to 15 ha, which is equal to or greater than found in previous studies that spanned longer time periods. This has implications when identifying the minimum patch size necessary for ensuring the long-term conservation of a squirrel glider population.

Identification of the Lingual Papillae in the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) by scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy.

A morphological description of the sugar glider's (Petaurus breviceps) tongue was obtained from five individual sugar gliders and analysed under a scanning electron microscope and a light microscope using four methods of staining. The tongue has a noticeably elongated structure with three regions: apex, corpus and radix. Transition to the corpus is indicated by the sulcus medianus linguae and the frenulum on its ventral surface. The dorsal tongue displayed a raised mucous membrane manifesting as a type of papillae. Filiform papillae were differentiated into two subtypes: brush-like papillae, with a short base splitting into 5-6 processes; and flower bud filiform papillae that are shorter and wider than the former, and divided into a single main process and 4-5 secondary processes. Fungiform papillae with 1-2 taste buds are interspersed between filiform papillae and absent on the radix. Conical papillae cover the lateral margin of the corpus and increase in size when closer to the radix. Vallate papillae-three in number-are arranged as a triangular structure, with the middle papillae pointing towards the root of the tongue. A continuous groove wrapped around each papilla with several taste buds is found on its lateral surface. Two of the vallate papillae are located symmetrically on each side and are much smaller than the most caudal middle vallate that is directed posteriorly. A positive reaction using separate staining with periodic acid-Schiff and Alcian blue (pH 2.5) showed Weber's glands and von Ebner's glands appearing beneath the papillae, mainly on the muscle layer of the radix. Different reactions to the stains indicated that Weber's gland contains sialomucin and/or sulfomucin, whereas von Ebner's gland consists of serous cells secreting glycogen and/or neutral mucin. The collagen structure was identified using Masson's trichrome stain in the two bottom layers of the tongue from the apex, decreasing gradually towards the radix.

Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium isolates from ill exotic pet animals in Japan including a new subtype in Cryptosporidium fayeri.

Cryptosporidium is an obligate intracellular parasite which can cause fatal diarrheal disease in exotic animals. Sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps), hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris), chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera), and common leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are popular exotic animals commonly sold in pet shops in Japan. We herein investigated the species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium in these animals. Cryptosporidium fayeri was detected in a sugar glider in a Japanese animal hospital. Sequence analyses of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene revealed that C. fayeri belonged to subtype family IVh (IVhA13G2T1), which was proposed to be a new subtype. This is the first study to report C. fayeri infection in a sugar glider. In other animals, the Cryptosporidium horse genotype, C. ubiquitum, and C. varanii were detected in two four-toed hedgehogs (A. albiventris), a chinchilla (C. lanigera), and common leopard gecko (E. macularius), respectively. The gp60 subtypes identified were VIbA13 of the horse genotype and XIId of C. ubiquitum. The present results revealed that potentially zoonotic Cryptosporidium is widespread in exotic animals in Japan.

Phase variation in latB associated with a fatal Pasteurella multocida outbreak in captive squirrel gliders.

A septicaemic disease outbreak caused by Pasteurella multocida at a zoo in Western Australia (Zoo A) occurred in a resident group of squirrel gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis) following the introduction of two squirrel gliders imported from another zoo (Zoo B). P. multocida isolates obtained from the affected animals and asymptomatic, cohabiting marsupials at both zoos were typed via lipopolysaccharide outer core biosynthesis locus (LPS) typing, repetitive extragenic palindromic PCR (Rep-PCR) typing, and multilocus sequence typing (ST). Investigation of isolate relatedness via whole genome sequencing (WGS) and phylogenomic analysis found that the outbreak isolates shared the same genetic profile as those obtained from the imported gliders and the positive marsupials at Zoo B. Phylogenomic analysis demonstrated that these isolates belonged to the same clone (named complex one), confirming that the outbreak strain originated at Zoo B. As well, the carriage of multiple different strains of this pathogen in a range of marsupials in a zoo setting has been demonstrated. Importantly, the genomic investigation identified a missense mutation in the latB, a structural LPS gene, resulting in introduction of an immediate stop codon in the isolates carried by asymptomatic squirrel gliders in Zoo B. The identified diversity in the latB gene of LPS outer core biosynthesis loci of these isolates is consistent with a novel phase variable mechanism for virulence in P. multocida. Our study demonstrates the benefit of WGS and bioinformatics analysis in epidemiological investigations of pasteurellosis and its potential to reveal unexpected insights into bacterial virulence.

The origin of exotic pet sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) kept in the United States of America.

The demand for exotic non-domesticated animals kept as pets in the United States of America (USA) is increasing the exportation rates of these species from their native ranges. Often, illegal harvesting of these species is used to boost captive-bred numbers and meet this demand. One such species, the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), endemic to Australia and New Guinea is a popular domestic pet due to its small size and "cute" demeanour. Despite a legal avenue for trade existing in Indonesia, concerns have been raised that sugar gliders may be entering the USA from other parts of their native range where exportation is prohibited such as Australia, Papua New Guinea and the surrounding Indonesian islands. We compared previously published DNA sequences from across the native range of sugar gliders with samples collected from domestically kept sugar gliders within the USA to determine provenance and gene flow between source and introduced populations. Here we show that as predicted, the USA sugar glider population originates from West Papua, Indonesia with no illegal harvesting from other native areas such as Papua New Guinea or Australia evident in the samples tested within this study.