Neighborhood-level Fatal Police Violence and Severe Maternal Morbidity in California.

Police violence is a pervasive issue that may have adverse implications for severe maternal morbidity (SMM). We assessed how the occurrence of fatal police violence (FPV) in one's neighborhood before/during pregnancy may influence SMM risk. Hospital discharge records from California between 2002-2018 were linked with the Fatal Encounters database (N=2,608,682). We identified 2,184 neighborhoods (census-tracts) with at least one FPV incident during the study period and used neighborhood fixed-effects models adjusting for individual sociodemographic characteristics to estimate odds of SMM associated with experiencing FPV in one's neighborhood anytime within the 24-months before childbirth. We did not find conclusive evidence on the link between FPV occurrence before delivery and SMM. However, estimates show that birthing people residing in neighborhoods where one or more FPV events had occurred within the preceding 24-months of giving birth may have a mildly elevated odds of SMM than those residing in the same neighborhoods with no FPV occurrence during the 24-months preceding childbirth (Odds Ratio (OR)=1.02; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.99-1.05), particularly among those living in neighborhoods with fewer (1-2) FPV incidents throughout the study period (OR=1.03; 95% CI:1.00-1.06). Our findings provide evidence for the need to continue to examine the health consequences of police violence.

Sleep Problems Among Black Youth Exposed to Police Violence on Digital Media.

Findings from a recent survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12 through 21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 345) reveal that viewing fatal police violence videos is associated with significant increases in the odds of youth sleep disturbances, and about 30% of this association is attributable to emotional distress after viewing the videos.

Police Violence Experienced by Black Gay and Bisexual Men: The Effects on HIV Care Engagement and Medication Adherence.

Black men face high rates of police violence, including direct victimization and indirect exposure to or knowledge of harmful policing. This violence can result in death and physical harm, as well as in numerous poor mental health outcomes. There has been little research examining experiences of police violence experienced by Black gay and bisexual men or the effects of police brutality on HIV continuum of care outcomes. To address this important gap, in this exploratory study, we examined the effects of police brutality on engagement in HIV care and adherence to antiretroviral medications. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 107 Black gay and bisexual men living with HIV. The path analysis showed that men with greater exposure to police violence had increased symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and were more likely to have missed HIV care appointments in the past year. Additionally, there was a significant indirect effect of exposure to police violence on missed medication doses via PTSD symptoms.

Investigating the Black Birth Experience: A Race-Stratified Analysis of Preterm Birth Risk and Exposure to Metropolitan Statistical Area-Level Police-Related Deaths, US 2018-2019.

Police-related violence may be a source of chronic stress underlying entrenched racial inequities in reproductive health in the USA. Using publicly available data on police-related fatalities, we estimated total and victim race-specific rates of police-related fatalities (deaths per 100,000 population) in 2018-2019 for Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) and counties within MSAs in the USA. Rates were linked to data on live births by maternal MSA and county of residence. We fit adjusted log-Poisson models with generalized estimating equations and cluster-robust standard errors to estimate the relative risk of preterm birth associated with the middle and highest tertiles of police-related fatalities compared to the lowest tertile. We included a test for heterogeneity by maternal race/ethnicity and additionally fit race/ethnicity-stratified models for associations with victim race/ethnicity-specific police-related fatality rates. Fully adjusted models indicated significant adverse associations between police-related fatality rates and relative risk of preterm birth for the total population, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic White groups separately. Results confirm the role of fatal police violence as a social determinant of population health outcomes and inequities, including preterm birth.

Cumulative Police Exposures, Police Violence Stress, and Depressive Symptoms: A Focus on Black LGBQ Youth in Baltimore City, Maryland.

The present study investigates associations between cumulative police exposures, police violence stress, and depressive symptoms among Black youth, and whether LGBQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer) identities moderate these associations. Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 345), administered from August 2022 to July 2023. We used multivariable ordinary least squares regression to estimate direct associations and product-term analysis to test for effect modification by sexual identities. We also calculate covariate-adjusted predicted depressive symptoms scores by cumulative police exposures and police violence stress across sexual identities. Findings indicate that LGBQ youth collectively reported higher levels of police violence stress than heterosexual youth. Still, LGBQ youth varied in their cumulative police exposures, which were significantly higher among bisexual and queer youth than lesbian or gay youth. Associations between cumulative police exposures, police violence stress, and depressive symptoms were significantly moderated by LGBQ identity, with the largest associations emerging for bisexual and queer youth. Police exposures and police violence stress also compounded to worsen depressive symptoms among the subsample of LGBQ youth. Collectively, our findings suggest that LGBQ youth-especially bisexual and queer youth-may be particularly vulnerable to the mental health harms of cumulative police exposures and police violence stress. Intersectional, public health approaches that combine prevention and treatment strategies are needed to mitigate LGBQ mental health inequities stemming from cumulative police exposures and police violence stress.

Neighborhood Safety and Neighborhood Police Violence Are Associated with Psychological Distress among English- and Spanish-Speaking Transgender Women of Color in New York City: Finding from the TURNNT Cohort Study.

Transgender women of color (TWOC) experience high rates of police violence and victimization compared to other sexual and gender minority groups, as well as compared to other White transgender and cisgender women. While past studies have demonstrated how frequent police harassment is associated with higher psychological distress, the effect of neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence on TWOC's mental health is rarely studied. In this study, we examine the association between neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence with psychological distress among TWOC. Baseline self-reported data are from the TURNNT ("Trying to Understand Relationships, Networks and Neighborhoods among Transgender Woman of Color") Cohort Study (analytic n = 303). Recruitment for the study began September 2020 and ended November 2022. Eligibility criteria included being a TWOC, age 18-55, English- or Spanish-speaking, and planning to reside in the New York City metropolitan area for at least 1 year. In multivariable analyses, neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence were associated with psychological distress. For example, individuals who reported medium levels of neighborhood police violence had 1.15 [1.03, 1.28] times the odds of experiencing psychological distress compared to those who experienced low levels of neighborhood police violence. Our data suggest that neighborhood safety and neighborhood police violence were associated with increased psychological distress among TWOC. Policies and programs to address neighborhood police violence (such as body cameras and legal consequences for abusive officers) may improve mental health among TWOC.

Officer gunpoint during police stops: Repercussions for youth mental health and perceived safety.

Youth-police contact is increasingly acknowledged as a stressor and a racialized adverse childhood experience that can undermine youths' mental health. The present study investigates a particularly distressing feature of youths' direct and witnessed in-person police stops-officer gunpoint (i.e., officers drawing of firearms and pointing them at youth, their peers, or other community members). We examine patterns of youths' officer gunpoint exposure and associations with youth mental health and safety perceptions. Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (n = 335), administered from August 2022 to July 2023. Findings indicate that ~33% of youth reporting in-person police stops had been exposed to officer gunpoint during stops. Officer gunpoint was significantly and positively associated with being male, unemployed, having an incarcerated parent, living in a neighborhood with greater disorder, and having been directly stopped by police, in addition to youth delinquency and impulsivity. Net of covariates, experiencing officer gunpoint was associated with a significantly higher rate of youth emotional distress during stops. Significant associations between officer gunpoint and youths' current police violence stress, police avoidance, and diminished safety perceptions also emerged and were largely explained by youths' heightened emotional distress at the time of police stops. Trauma-informed approaches are needed to mitigate the mental health harms of youth experiencing officer gunpoint.

Bodies of evidence: The 'Excited Delirium Syndrome' and the epistemology of cause-of-death inquiry.

"Excited Delirium Syndrome" (ExDS) is a controversial diagnosis. The supposed syndrome is sometimes considered to be a potential cause of death. However, it has been argued that its sole purpose is to cover up excessive police violence because it is mainly used to explain deaths of individuals in custody. In this paper, we examine the epistemic conditions giving rise to the controversial diagnosis by discussing the relation between causal hypotheses, evidence, and data in forensic medicine. We argue that the practitioners' social context affects causal inquiry through background assumptions that enter inquiry at multiple stages. This analysis serves to better understand the wide usage of the controversial diagnosis of ExDS.

Haitian and Haitian American experiences of racism and socioethnic discrimination in Miami-Dade county: At-risk and court-involved youth.

We examine how juvenile justice-involved youth of Haitian descent in Miami-Dade County cope with structural racism and its impact on their mental health. Drawing on longitudinal ethnography, psychosocial assessment data, and a family-based clinical intervention funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, this article explores youth narratives of discrimination prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. We use critical race theory and theory of practice to understand youths' perceptions as racialized bodies and stigmatized selves, highlighting the experiences and perspectives of a particular black immigrant group, ethnic beings caught up in the everyday practices of racialization, sociocultural marginalization, and racism. We frame these experiences as a variation of the complex continuum of structural racism and racial domination in the US. These experiences have caused anger, fear, anxiety, chronic anticipatory distress, and hopelessness among youth of Haitian descent. We conclude with some recommendations for therapeutic support that encourages youth to process their experiences, promotes their development of a positive self-concept, and provides them with mind-body techniques to attenuate the physical impacts of discriminatory events. The clinical trial registration number for this study intervention is NCT03876171.

How place and race drive the numbers of fatal police shootings in the US: 2015-2020.

Place and race are two important predictors of fatal police shootings. We used Mapping Police Violence Data and the Washington Post Fatal Force Data to determine whether a county's deprivation status within communities influences the association between the number of fatal police shootings, and how the number of fatal police shootings differs by race and ethnicity. We categorized counties based on the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) to three categories: low-, medium-, and high-SVI. The analytical sample included 3136 US counties between 2015 and 2020; during this time, 5525 individuals were fatally shot by police. Our findings show that place strongly impacts the number of fatal police shootings. Among all fatal shootings, 713 occurred in low-SVI counties, 1660 in middle-SVI, and 3152 in high-SVI counties. Race played a significant role; fatal shooting deaths increased by 2.3 times among White individuals, 9.6 times among Black individuals, and 15 times among Hispanic individuals between low- and high-SVI counties. The results of negative binomial regressions show a strong association between fatal police shootings and the counties' characteristics. In comparison with low-SVI counties, residents in counties with moderate and high-SVI are more likely to be fatally shot by police by 4.9 and 5.8 percentage points. In addressing violence and fatal police shootings, the vulnerability of counties and the population's racial composition play significant roles and need specific attention in addressing systemic racial disparities in the criminal justice system.

Latent Class Profiles of Police Violence Exposure in 4 US Cities and Their Associations with Anticipation of Police Violence and Mental Health Outcomes.

While studying polyvictimization is well established within the broader violence literature and applied to other types of violence, it has yet to be documented whether polyvictimization also presents in patterns of police violence exposure (i.e., neglectful, psychological, physical, and sexual police violence). Our objective was to analyze latent patterns of co-occurring police contact and their associations with mental health. By applying latent class analysis (LCA) methods to the 2016 and 2017 Surveys of Police-Public Encounters (N = 2615), conducted in 4 Northeastern US cities, we identified classes of direct and vicarious police violence and compared sociodemographic characteristics among classes using multinomial regression. Classes were regressed on mental health outcomes. LCA identified four classes of police contact. Compared to Positive Police Contact (33.0%) class members, members of the (a) Extreme Police Violence (4.0%) class reported higher anticipation of future police victimization, psychological distress, and suicide ideations and attempts; they were more likely to be Black, cisgender men, and Latinx; (b) members of the High Police Violence (23.6%) class reported higher anticipation of future police victimization and psychological distress; they were more likely to be Black, Native American, and multiracial; members of the (c) Low Police Contact (39.5%) class had comparable mental health outcomes; they were more likely to report a household income < $19,999. Notably, no participants were unexposed to police contact. Polyvictimization presents in experiences of police violence and disproportionately impacts structurally marginalized people.

Female sex workers and police violence during the Covid-19 health crisis in 2020-2021: results from the EPIC multi-country community-based research program in Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers (FSW) have been disproportionately impacted by the Covid-19 crisis. Data show increases of police violence toward key populations (KP), likely a consequence of their role in enforcing health government measures. This study aimed to identify factors associated with police violence experienced by FSW during the Covid-19 crisis in Argentina. METHODS: EPIC is a multi-country, cross-sectional, community-based research program evaluating the impact of Covid-19 among KP. In Argentina, the study was conducted in collaboration with FSW community-based organizations (CBO). Participants completed an online survey (October 2020-April 2021). Police violence was measured as having experienced episodes of violence (physical, verbal, psychological or sexual) by security forces since the start of the health crisis. Factors associated with police violence were assessed in logistic regression models. RESULTS: Among 173 respondents, median age was 34 [IQR 27-42], 39.3% were transgender women (TW), 78.1% declared sex work as their only income and 71.7% mentioned their financial situation has deteriorated with the health crisis. Nearly half of FSW (44.5%) reported experiencing police violence within the first year of the Covid-19 pandemic, and among them, 76.6% declared more frequent violence episodes since the beginning of the health crisis. After adjustment for age, being a TW (aOR [95% CI] = 2.71 [1.21;6.05]), reporting non-injection drug use (2.92 [1.02;8.36]), having a considerably deteriorated financial situation (3.67 [1.47;9.21]), having had a consultation with a CBO worker for medical care/treatments (5.56 [2.15;14.37]) and declaring fear or experiences of discrimination by physicians/other health workers (2.97 [1.21;7.29]), since the beginning of the Covid-19 health crisis, were independently associated with police violence. CONCLUSIONS: FSW in Argentina have experienced an increase in police violence since the beginning of the health crisis. Belonging to multiple KP (FSW, TW, people who use drugs) increases the likelihood of experiencing police violence, highlighting the need of an intersectional approach to develop interventions to reduce stigma and violence against FSW. CBOs have provided essential support and services during the crisis to FSWs, and other KPs, who may have avoided traditional healthcare structures due to fear or experiences of discrimination.

Trauma and Police Violence: Issues and Implications for Mental Health Professionals.

In this piece, the authors present the case of a young Black American man who experienced symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder after an episode of police violence. Through engagement with this case, the authors consider whether trauma-focused psychotherapies, particularly trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapies (TF-CBT), are equipped to attend to contextual factors relevant to traumatic experiences of police violence. The authors suggest further research to determine for whom and in what contexts standard forms of psychotherapy as well as alternatives to TF-CBT are effective, and augmenting provider education to include advocacy strategies aimed at reducing police violence-advocacy that is relevant in the context of nationwide protests occurring after the officer-perpetrated killings of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and others.

Willingness to Engage in Collective Action After the Police Killing of an Unarmed Black Man: Differential Pathways for Black and White Individuals.

This cross-sectional survey study examined the underlying psychosocial constructs of Black (n = 163) and White (n = 246) university students' willingness to endorse racially motivated collective action. Consistent with the defensive motivation system model, we expected the police shooting of an unarmed Black American to activate concerns about personal safety, thereby eliciting negative affect, lack of forgiveness of the perpetrator, and motivation to engage in collective action. This path model was expected for both Black and White participants, with stronger associations among Black participants. In the full model, Black participants identified more with the victim and indicated greater personal threat, which led to (1) more negative affect and greater endorsement of collective action and (2) greater avoidance of the shooter and greater endorsement of collective action. In the Black participants model, collective action was explained by identifying with the victim and feeling personally threatened. In the White participants model, collective action was explained by three pathways stemming from identifying with the victim and personal threat, including negative affect, seeking avoidance, and seeking revenge. The results indicate different mechanisms to explain Black and White individuals' motivation to endorse collective action to prevent police-involved shootings of unarmed Black Americans.

An audit experiment to investigate the "war on cops": a research note.

Objectives: This study examines whether former police officers are stigmatized in the labor market, particularly following social unrest from lethal police violence. Methods: We conduct an experimental audit study, both before and after heightened unrest from police violence. For service-related job openings, we compare the likelihood of getting an affirmative response from a prospective employer to a job application from a fictitious former police officer (the treatment condition) to the response to one of two control conditions: a former firefighter or a former code enforcement officer. Results: We do not find evidence that former police officers are discriminated against in the labor market. This finding holds in periods characterized by relatively little social unrest due to police violence as well as periods of heightened protest activity. Conclusions: At least with respect to the labor market for certain service-related professions, former police officers do not appear tainted by any stigma associated with their prior profession. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11292-021-09458-x.

Violence, HIV Risks, and Polysubstance Use Among HIV-Positive People Who Inject Drugs in Ukraine.

Violence experience has been consistently associated with HIV risks and substance use behaviors. Although many studies have focused on intimate partner violence (IPV), the role of violence at a structural level (i.e., police abuse) remains relevant for people who inject drugs. This study evaluated the association of IPV and police-perpetrated violence experiences with HIV risk behaviors and substance use in a cohort of HIV-positive people who inject drugs in Ukraine. We also evaluated possible moderation effects of gender and socioeconomic status in the links between violence exposure and HIV risk and polysubstance use behaviors. Data came from the Providence/Boston-CFAR-Ukraine Study involving 191 HIV-positive people who inject drugs conducted at seven addiction treatment facilities in Ukraine. Results from logistic regressions suggest that people who inject drugs and experienced IPV had higher odds of polysubstance use than those who did not experience IPV. Verbal violence and sexual violence perpetrated by police were associated with increased odds of inconsistent condom use. The odds of engaging in polysubstance use were lower for women in relation to police physical abuse. We found no evidence supporting socioeconomic status moderations. Violence experiences were associated with substance use and sexual HIV risk behaviors in this cohort of HIV-positive people who inject drugs in Ukraine. Trauma-informed prevention approaches that consider both individual and structural violence could improve this population's HIV risks.

RESUMEN: La experiencia de violencia se ha asociado sistemáticamente con las conductas de riesgo para la adquisición o transmisión del VIH y con el uso de sustancias. Aunque muchos estudios se han centrado en la violencia infligida por la pareja íntima (VPI), el papel de la violencia estructural (es decir, el abuso policial) sigue siendo relevante para las personas que se inyectan drogas. Este estudio evaluó la asociación entre las experiencias de violencia perpetrada por la policía y la pareja íntima con los conductas de riesgo para la adquisición o transmisión del VIH y el uso de sustancias en una cohorte de personas VIH positivas que se inyectan drogas en Ucrania. También evaluamos los posibles efectos de moderación del género y el estatus socioeconómico entre la exposición a la violencia y los comportamientos de riesgo para la transmisión del VIH y uso de múltiples sustancias. Los datos provienen del estudio Providence / Boston-CFAR-Ucrania en el que participaron 191 personas infectadas por el VIH que se inyectan drogas, realizado en siete centros de tratamiento de adicciones en Ucrania. Los resultados de las regresiones logísticas sugieren que, en comparación con las personas que se inyectan drogas que no experimentaron IPV, las que experimentaron IPV tenían mayor probabilidad de uso de múltiples sustancias. La violencia sexual perpetrada por la policía se asoció con mayores probabilidades de un uso inconsistente del condón. No encontramos evidencia que apoye las moderaciones de género o estatus socioeconómico. Las experiencias de violencia se asociaron con el uso de sustancias y las conductas sexuales de riesgo para la transmisión del VIH en esta cohorte de personas VIH positivas que se inyectan drogas en Ucrania. Los enfoques de prevención basados en las experiencias traumáticas que tienen en cuenta tanto la violencia individual como la estructural podrían mejorar las conductas de riesgo para la transmission del VIH de esta población.

Violence and discrimination among Ugandan residents during the COVID-19 lockdown.

BACKGROUND: In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic. Many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda inclusive, implemented lockdowns, curfew, banning of both private and public transport systems, and mass gatherings to minimize spread. Social control measures for COVID-19 are reported to increase violence and discrimination globally, including in Uganda as some may be difficult to implement resulting in the heavy deployment of law enforcement. Media reports indicated that cases of violence and discrimination had increased in Uganda's communities following the lockdown. We estimated the incidence and factors associated with experiencing violence and discrimination among Ugandans during the COVID-19 lockdown to inform control and prevention measures. METHODS: In April 2020, we conducted a secondary analysis of cross-sectional data under the International Citizen Project (ICP) to assess adherence to public health measures and their impact on the COVID-19 outbreak in Uganda. We analyzed data on violence and discrimination from the ICP study. We performed descriptive statistics for all the participants' characteristics and created a binary outcome variable called experiencing violence and/or discrimination. We performed logistic regression analysis to identify the factors associated with experiencing violence and discrimination. RESULTS: Of the 1726 ICP study participants, 1051 (58.8%) were males, 841 (48.7%) were currently living with a spouse or partner, and 376 (21.8%) had physically attended work for more than 3 days in the past week. Overall, 145 (8.4%) experienced any form of violence and/or discrimination by any perpetrator, and 46 (31.7%) of the 145 reported that it was perpetrated by a law enforcement officer. Factors associated with experiencing violence or discrimination were: being male (AOR = 1.60 CI:1.10-2.33), having attended work physically for more than 3 days in the past week (AOR = 1.52 CI:1.03-2.23), and inability to access social or essential health services since the epidemic started (AOR = 3.10 CI:2.14-4.50). CONCLUSION: A substantial proportion of Ugandan residents experienced violence and/or discrimination during the COVID-19 lockdown, mostly perpetrated by law enforcement officers. We recommend mitigation of the collateral impact of lockdowns with interventions that focus on improving policing quality, ensuring continuity of essential services, and strengthening support systems for vulnerable groups including males.

PARTICULATES//Tulips: (Or, Estimating Respiratory Effects of Ambient Air Pollution and COVID-19 Using a Policing-Climate Adjusted Hazard Function).

Through poetry, I offer a creative, critical analysis of the intersections of COVID-19, structural racism, and racialized police violence-situating present COVID-19 discourse within a broader historical arc of respiratory distress within communities of color, all while centering Earth Day and climate change as both metaphor and corollary. In doing so, I enact poetry as praxis, reflecting critically on the racialized contexts and consequences of overlapping threats to our health, while simultaneously crafting counternarrative to public health's ahistoric, apolitical, and racist proclivities in times of public health crises.

Police violence among women in four U.S. cities.

Police violence has been identified as a public health concern in the U.S., yet few studies have assessed the prevalence and nature of police violence among women. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that women reporting intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) to police are often met with harmful or neglectful police responses and thus, women's exposures to police violence may be associated with experiences of IPV and SV; however, this has not yet been empirically tested. This study assesses lifetime prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of police violence among women and investigates potential associations between IPV, SV, and police violence. A cross-sectional survey was administered in four Eastern U.S. cities in March and April 2016 (N=932). Physical, sexual, and psychological police victimization and neglect by police were assessed. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between IPV, SV, and police violence, adjusting for sociodemographics. Lifetime prevalence of physical (4%), sexual (3.3%), and psychological (14.4%) police violence and neglect (17.2%), show that a notable proportion of women experience police victimization, with significantly higher rates among racial and ethnic minority women. Women with IPV and SV histories had increased odds of experiencing most forms of police violence compared to women without IPV and SV histories. Findings suggest the need for gender-inclusive community-centered policing initiatives and other preventive efforts aimed at eliminating police violence. Police violence and victimization among women should also be considered in IPV and SV intervention and treatment responses.

Activating the past in the Ferguson protests: Memory work, digital activism and the politics of platforms.

This article analyzes the Facebook page Justice for Mike Brown-set up during the 2014 Ferguson protests-in order to rethink the role of memory work within contemporary digital activism. We argue that, as a particular type of discursive practice, memory work on the page bridged personal and collective action frames. This occurred in four overlapping ways. First, the page allowed for affective commemorative engagement that helped shape Brown's public image. Second, Brown's death was contextualized as part of systematic injustice against African Americans. Third, the past was used to legitimize present action, wherein the present was continually connected to the past and future. And fourth, particular discursive units became recognizable symbolic markers during the protests and for future recall. Based on this typology, we show that memory work, although multidirectional and in flux, is stabilized by the interactions between the page administrator, users, and Facebook's operational logic.