Do perceived inequalities in safe water access manifest in collective action? Evidence from urban Ghana.

Access to safe drinking water is critical in improving health and well-being. It is estimated that >40% of urban households in Ghana do not have access to safe drinking water. Although the willingness and ability of community members to collectively take local initiatives are essential to curtailing inequities in water access in Ghana, the determinant of collective action is less explored. This paper explores determinants of collective action in water-insecure neighbourhoods and examines how perceived inequities in access to water and trust mediate the relationship between lack of access to water and collective action in urban Ghana. The results show that the urban poor OR = 12.047 (p = 0.000) were more likely to participate in water-related collective action compared to wealthy individuals. Primary decision-makers were 1.696 times more likely to participate in collective (p = 0.02). We also found that perceived inequities OR = 0.381 (p = 0.00) significantly predict participation in collective action to address water insecurity. Water service providers should be subjected to a rigid state-level framework that ensures inclusivity, fairness and justice in their distribution systems.

Mozambique public investment in the water and sanitation sector and the targets of SDG6.

Many developing countries may not reach the targets of providing access to safe water sources and sanitation services for all by 2030. Census data from Mozambique show that the country's population is one of fastest growing in the Sub-Saharan region. Between the 2007 and 2017 censuses more than seven million people were added to the total population. By 2030 about 11 million people will be added to Mozambique's population. This will pose a huge challenge for the water and sanitation services. Access to these services is a fundamental requirement for the wellbeing of individuals and the development of nations. The last data from a Survey on Mozambique Family Budgets (IOF 2019/20), show that 55.7% of a total population has access to safe water sources. In contrast, access to sanitation services (31% of the population), has not kept pace with the progress made in water access. In this study, based on data from the General State Account of Mozambique, which includes the description of the annual investment made by the government and using the results of the Family Budget Surveys, it can be seen that if the average percentage values of public investment of 2009 to 2021 are the same in the following years as regards the water and sanitation sector, Mozambique will not reach the Sustainable Development Goals 6 targets in 2030.

Experiences of inequalities in access to safe water and psycho-emotional distress in Ghana.

Research suggests that experiences of water insecurity may negatively impact the psycho-emotional wellbeing of water-insecure households. This paper examines how perceived inequalities in water access mediate the relationship between water insecurity and psycho-emotional distress. Data were collected among 1192 men and women in Ghana who are active water collectors within their households. We employed a binary logistics regression to identify the determinants of psycho-emotional distress. Sobel test was used to test the indirect effect of water insecurity and psycho-emotional distress through perceived inequalities. The results show that wealth (OR = 6.6, CI = 2.784-14.076), number of people in a household (OR = 1.07, CI = 1.002-1.145) and perceived inequalities (OR = 4.6, CI = 2.737-7.907) are significant predictors of psycho-emotional distress. Sobel test indicated that the point estimate (PE) of the indirect effect between water insecurity and psycho-emotional distress through perceived inequality is -0.136 (p = 0.000), meaning households were less likely to experience psycho-emotional distress if they felt that safe water facilities were equally distributed. The findings suggest that the distribution of water resources in cities with water challenges, no matter how scarce those resources are, has a profound effect on psycho-emotional distress. In resources constrained cities, there is a need for holistic water-related interventions that make inclusivity and fairness their primary focus.

History of tailings dam failure: Impacts on access to safe water and influence on the legislative framework.

Tailings dams have been built since 3000 BCE and despite the advancement of construction methods, mainly in the second half of the 21st century, their ruptures were still recorded. The main direct impacts are related to the loss of human lives, impairment of physical structures and changes in water quality. In this review, different dam failure events were critically analyzed considering their social and environmental impacts, besides the gaps in current regulations framework to appropriately charge the companies involved. These aspects differ the current review paper from those currently available, which also present advancements in the discussion of actions taken after the ruptures, the impacts on water quality, and the challenges related to the water supply. It has been noticed a lack of studies and methodologies capable to predict the water quality under scenarios of tailings contamination. Studies covering that aspect would be an important tool for planning emergency responses by stakeholders. With that in mind, the article discloses the pathway toward an effective strategy in scenarios of tailing dam failure that would mitigate the impacts on water quality and guarantee access to safe water.

Understanding safe water-carrying practices during pregnancy and postpartum: A mixed-methods study in Nepal.

Daily carrying of heavy loads of domestic water, especially during pregnancy and postpartum, bears a threat to maternal health in low-income countries. Using an extended health action process approach (HAPA), we examined women's reasons for and psychosocial determinants of safe water-carrying during pregnancy and postpartum. In a mixed-methods study, trained local interviewers conducted 1001 quantitative interviews with women of reproductive age (n = 921 analyzed) and 21 qualitative interviews with women of reproductive age, in-laws, and spouses in rural Nepal. We analyzed the quantitative data with generalized estimating equations to model the HAPA-based psychosocial determinants of avoiding water-carrying during pregnancy and postpartum. Subjective perspectives were investigated with thematic analysis. Outcome expectancies (B = 0.24), self-efficacy (B = 0.20), and injunctive norms (B = 0.23) were significantly associated with the intention to avoid water-carrying. Self-efficacy (B = 0.36) and instrumental support (B = 0.05) are related to behavior (all p < 0.05). Women explained water-carrying during pregnancy by a lack of family support, a shift of health decision-making power to in-laws, and low behavioral control. Overall, the necessity of water, family decision-making structures, and low support make it difficult for women to discontinue water-carrying. Additionally to infrastructural improvements, behavioral interventions may increase women's self-efficacy for safe water-carrying (e.g. reducing weight) and social support.

Challenges of Access to WASH in Schools in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Case Study from Rural Central Kazakhstan.

Safe water and sanitation, which give rise to appropriate hygiene, are fundamental determinants of individual and social health and well-being. Thereby, assessing and widening access to sustainable, durable water and sanitation infrastructure remains a global health issue. Rural areas are already at a disadvantage. Poor access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) can have a major negative effect on students in rural schools. Thus, the paper aims to assess the current condition and the challenge to access WASH in rural Kazakh schools. The study was conducted in three rural schools in Central Kazakhstan. Data were gathered through a survey among pupils, observations of the WASH infrastructure and maintenance, and a face-to-face interview with school administrators. The mean survey response rate was 65% across schools. Results indicated there was no alternative drinking-water source in schools, and 15% of students said they had access to water only occasionally. Half of the students reported that the water was unsafe to drink because of a poor odor, taste, or color. The toilet in school 3 was locked with a key, and a quarter of the students reported there was no access to a key. Moreover, not having gender-separated toilet facilities was a challenge because of the traditional gender norms. Despite the effective regulations and measures of handwashing taken during COVID-19, 27.7% of the students answered that soap was not offered daily in classrooms. Additionally, warm water was only provided in school 2. About 75% of students did not have access to drying materials continuously. The study shows that having the schools' infrastructure is not enough when characteristics, such as availability, accessibility, maintenance, operation, quality of services, education, and practices, are ignored. Cooperation between local education authorities, school administration, and parents should be encouraged to the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) by 2030.

Urban water and food security in this century and beyond: Resource-smart cities and residents.

The urban world population will increase from 3 to 8.5 thousand million in the 21st century. Cities become hot spots of both demand for water and global food and for disposed used water and nutrients. Sustainability requires that resource flows through our cities are co-managed and connected to agriculture. Reduced use of harmful chemicals in consumer products facilitates treatment to a quality that allows reuse/recycling of water and nutrients. A solid and liquid waste hierarchy can assist in ordering measures. A novel flexible water balance can guide city infrastructure and keep toilet water separate. New water-saving equipment can substantially reduce water use without losing personal comfort. The combination of these new approaches ascertains access to safe urban water, and that recovered nutrients from cities can substitute half of chemical fertilisers needed in food production. Now, thousands of new cities and suburbs provide unique opportunities to develop resource-smart and sustainable flows.

Water Supply Challenges in Rural Areas: A Case Study from Central Kazakhstan.

Rural water supplies have traditionally been overshadowed by urban ones. That must now change, as the Sustainable Development Goals calls for water for all. The objective of the paper is to assess the current access to and the perceived water quality in villages with various types of water supply. The survey was carried out during July⁻December 2017 in four villages in central Kazakhstan. Overall, 1369 randomly selected households were interviewed. The results revealed that even though villagers were provided with tap water, significant numbers used alternative sources. There were three reasons for this situation: residents' doubts regarding the tap water quality; use of other sources out of habit; and availability of cheaper or free sources. Another problem concerned the volume of water consumption, which dropped sharply with decreased quality or inconvenience of sources used by households. Moreover, people gave a poor estimate to the quality and reliability of water from wells, open sources and tankered water. The paper suggests that as well decentralization of water management as monitoring of both water supply and water use are essential measures. There must be a tailor-made approach to each village for achieving the Sustainable Development Goal of providing rural Kazakhstan with safe water.

The human right to water and sanitation: a new perspective for public policies / Direito Humano à agua e ao esgotamento sanitário: uma nova perspectiva para as políticas públicas

Abstract The recognition of the human right to water and sanitation (HRtWS) by the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council in 2010 constituted a significant political measure whose direct consequences are still being assessed. Previous to this date, the HRtWS and its link to a healthy life and adequate standard of living had been recognised in diverse legal and judicial spheres worldwide, in some cases under the pressure of the initiatives of strong social movements. However, while the HRtWS is recognised by the UN State Members, it constitutes a concept in construction that has not been approached and interpreted in consensual ways by all concerned stakeholders. The present article presents a formal definition of this right with a base in human rights regulation. It attempts to dialogue with the different existing perspectives regarding the impact of its international recognition as a human right. It then elucidates the progressive development of the HRtWS in law and jurisprudence. Finally, it considers the urgency and challenge of monitoring the HRtWS and discusses important implications for public policies.

Resumo O reconhecimento do direito humano à água e ao saneamento (HRtWS) pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas e pelo Conselho de Direitos Humanos, em 2010, constitui uma medida política significativa cujas consequências diretas ainda estão sendo avaliadas. Anterior a esta data, a relação entre HRtWS com uma vida saudável e um padrão de vida adequado já havia sido reconhecida em diversas esferas legais e jurídicas em todo o mundo, em alguns casos devido à pressão das iniciativas de movimentos sociais fortes. No entanto, mesmo que o HRtWS tenha sido reconhecido pelos Estados Membros das Nações Unidas, ele constitui um conceito em construção que não tem sido abordado e interpretado de maneira consensual por todos os atores interessados. O presente artigo apresenta uma definição formal desse direito com base no regulamento de direitos humanos. Tenta dialogar com as diferentes perspectivas existentes sobre o impacto do seu reconhecimento internacional como um direito humano. Em seguida, esclarece o desenvolvimento progressivo dos HRtWS na lei e na jurisprudência. Por último, considera a urgência e o desafio de monitorar os HRtWS e discute implicações importantes para políticas públicas.

The human right to water and sanitation: a new perspective for public policies / Direito Humano à agua e ao esgotamento sanitário: uma nova perspectiva para as políticas públicas

O reconhecimento do direito humano à água e ao saneamento (HRtWS) pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas e pelo Conselho de Direitos Humanos, em 2010, constitui uma medida política significativa cujas consequências diretas ainda estão sendo avaliadas. Anterior a esta data, a relação entre HRtWS com uma vida saudável e um padrão de vida adequado já havia sido reconhecida em diversas esferas legais e jurídicas em todo o mundo, em alguns casos devido à presSÃO das iniciativas de movimentos sociais fortes. No entanto, mesmo que o HRtWS tenha sido reconhecido pelos Estados Membros das Nações Unidas, ele constitui um conceito em construção que não tem sido abordado e interpretado de maneira consensual por todos os atores interessados. O presente artigo apresenta uma definição formal desse direito com base no regulamento de direitos humanos. Tenta dialogar com as diferentes perspectivas existentes sobre o impacto do seu reconhecimento internacional como um direito humano. Em seguida, esclarece o desenvolvimento progressivo dos HRtWS na lei e na jurisprudência. Por último, considera a urgência e o desafio de monitorar os HRtWS e discute implicações importantes para políticas PÚBLICAs.

O direito humano à água e ao esgotamento sanitário como instrumento para promoção da saúde de populações vulneráveis / The right to water and sanitation as a tool for health promotion of vulnerable groups

Resumo O conceito de promoção da saúde, baseado nos determinantes sociais, alinha-se com princípios dos direitos humanos como: participação social, responsabilidade, transparência e não discriminação. O Direito humano à água e ao esgotamento sanitário (DHAES) foi aprovado em 2010 pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas e Conselho de Direitos Humanos, e visa garantir acesso à água e ao esgotamento sanitário sem discriminação para toda a população. Dito isso, o presente artigo tem como objetivo analisar de que forma o referencial dos direitos humanos, em especial do DHAES, pode ser mobilizado para fortalecer a promoção da saúde de populações vulneráveis. Para isso, inicia apresentando a relação entre saúde e direitos humanos, em seguida demonstra como o conceito de vulnerabilidade social se baseia nestes, e finaliza mostrando a relação entre o DHAES e a promoção da saúde de grupos vulneráveis.

Abstract The concept of health promotion, which is based on social determinants, is aligned with principles of human rights such as social participation, accountability, transparency and non-discrimination. The Human Right to Water and Sanitation (HRWS) was approved in 2010 by the United Nations General Assembly and the Human Rights Council and it aims to ensure access to water and sanitation, without discrimination, for all. This article aims to analyze how the human rights framework, and more specifically the HRWS, can be used to strengthen the health promotion of vulnerable groups. The article begins by presenting the relationship between health and human rights. It then demonstrates how the concept of social vulnerability is based on human rights and, finally, it shows the relationship between the HRWS and the promotion of the health of vulnerable groups.

Conflitos socioambientais no acesso à água para consumo humano e para a produção em assentamento de reforma agrária no semiárido / Socio-environmental conflicts in access to water for human consumption and to production in agrarian reform settlement in the semi-arid region

A pesquisa aborda um estudo de caso sobre os conflitos socioambientais no acesso à água para consumo humano e para produção agropecuária em assentamentos de reforma agrária no semiárido nordestino. O objetivo central foi identificar os fatores que dificultam as famílias do assentamento Água Viva de não ter acesso à água em quantidade e qualidade adequada. Soma-se a este objetivo, a caracterização do assentamento quanto aos aspectos socioeconômicos, ambientais, culturais e políticos; sua descrição e a participação social nos processos de resistência e luta ocasionados pela inadequação do acesso a água; a identificação de fatores institucionais e políticos que dificultam aos camponeses assentados em garantir sua sustentabilidade na produção e reprodução da vida e os processos de conflitos, resignação e vulnerabilização Social. Neste trabalho foi adotado o método de estudo qualitativo descritivo e exploratório do referido assentamento por meio de pesquisa documental, entrevistas semiestruturadas e rodas de conversas, tendo os seus dados analisados a partir da análise de conteúdo na modalidade temática por ser um método simples de ser adotado em estudos na área da saúde. Os resultados dos dados primários e secundários utilizados confirmaram a hipótese de que a inexistência de uma política específica de abastecimento de água para áreas de assentamentos de reforma agrária como o assentamento Água Viva gera conflitos e contribui para a desestruturação e desorganização da comunidade camponesa. Soma-se também a esse fator, o conjunto de burocracias do INCRA quanto à liberação de linhas de créditos, assistência técnica com planejamentos não adaptados à realidade do semiárido, a rotatividade de moradores no assentamento e a fragilidade na autonomia do conjunto das famílias assentadas (o que justifica a necessidade de aprofundamento nos debates sobre a má distribuição das águas para as áreas de assentamentos de reforma agrária) e pelas diversas formas de contaminação das águas em áreas de perímetros irrigados que vulnerabilizam os camponeses e impedem seu processo de produção e reprodução da vida. Compreende-se que a pesquisa possibilitou enxergar os assentamentos de reforma agrária como conquista da classe trabalhadora e em especial aos movimentos do campo como forma de garantir terra para quem quer cultivar, trabalhar, tendo-a como um lugar que proporcione às mesmas, qualidade de vida e saúde, bem como um ambiente ecológico e politicamente equilibrado.