Ambient Air Pollution and Depressed Mood in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) Wave IV.

Depression is a major contributor to the global burden of disease. There is limited understanding of how environmental exposures may contribute to depression etiology. We used Wave IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to examine associations between low-level ambient air pollution exposure and depressed mood in a generally healthy population of over 10,000 24-32 year olds. Annual mean PM2.5 levels in the 2008-2009 study were close to the current U.S. standard. In fully adjusted quasi-binomial logistic regression models, there were no meaningful associations between IQR increases in air pollutant and change in depressed mood status regardless of specific pollutant or moving average lags. In interaction effects models, an IQR increase in lag day 0-30 PM2.5 resulted in 1.20 (95% CI, 1.02-1.41) times higher likelihood of having depressed mood, but only for persons with chronic lung disease (interaction P=0.04); the association was null for participants without chronic lung disease (OR 0.98, 95% CI, 0.91, 1.05). Our findings suggest that among persons with a lifetime history of chronic lung disease, greater exposure to even low-level PM2.5, PM10, and sulfate may be associated with modest increases in the likelihood of having depressed mood.

A Developmentally-Informative Genome-wide Association Study of Alcohol Use Frequency.

Contemporary genome-wide association study (GWAS) methods typically do not account for variability in genetic effects throughout development. We applied genomic structural equation modeling to combine developmentally-informative phenotype data and GWAS to create polygenic scores (PGS) for alcohol use frequency that are specific to developmental stage. Longitudinal cohort studies targeted for gene-identification analyses include the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (adolescence n = 1,118, early adulthood n = 2,762, adulthood n = 5,255), the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (adolescence n = 3,089, early adulthood n = 3,993, adulthood n = 5,149), and the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; adolescence n = 5,382, early adulthood n = 3,613). PGS validation analyses were conducted in the COGA sample using an alternate version of the discovery analysis with COGA removed. Results suggest that genetic liability for alcohol use frequency in adolescence may be distinct from genetic liability for alcohol use frequency later in developmental periods. The age-specific PGS predicts an increase of 4 drinking days per year per PGS standard deviation when modeled separately from the common factor PGS in adulthood. The current work was underpowered at all steps of the analysis plan. Though small sample sizes and low statistical power limit the substantive conclusions that can be drawn regarding these research questions, this work provides a foundation for future genetic studies of developmental variability in the genetic underpinnings of alcohol use behaviors and genetically-informed, age-matched phenotype prediction.

Sex Work and Educational Mobility: Results from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health.

The purpose of the study was to assess the relationship between sex work involvement and education mobility among a national sample of US young adults. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health; N = 7732) were analyzed to explore the prospective association between lifetime sex work involvement measured in young adulthood (Wave III; ages 18-26) and educational mobility measured in adulthood (Wave V; ages 33-43). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted, adjusting for relevant demographic and control variables. Results indicated that young adults who reported ever having been paid for sex by the ages of 18-26 had twofold greater risk (95% confidence interval 1.26-3.18) of having downward educational mobility compared to a stable level of education, or the same education, relative to their parents in adulthood. Given that education, by means of regular social connectedness to social supports, may be the most salient resiliency factor protecting adolescents from potential risks associated with sex work involvement (e.g., stigma, isolation from services), the findings from this study support the promotion of inclusive engagement from school settings to foster educational attainment and prevent poorer health and psychosocial outcomes that research to date has associated with sex work involvement.

Timing of a First Romantic Union Among Sexual Minority Young Adults.

Cohabitation and marriage are critical milestones during the transition to adulthood; however, there is limited research on the timing of young adults' first same-sex unions. There is some evidence that same-sex unions may be delayed, particularly for men. Further, formation of both same- and different-sex dating relationships, common among sexual minority young adults, may also extend to cohabitation and marriage. We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to predict the timing of a first romantic union, defined as a cohabitation or marriage, among sexual minority young adults. We then distinguished between women and men and the timing of a different-sex versus a same-sex union. Compared with heterosexual young adults, lesbian and gay young adults entered a union at later ages (driven by men), whereas bisexual young adults entered a union at younger ages (driven by women). Lesbian and gay young adults who entered a first union with a same-sex partner did so at later ages than those who entered a first union with a different-sex partner. Results suggest that patterns of sexual minority dating relationship formation might extend to unions.

Adverse childhood experiences and unhealthy dietary behaviours in adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: This study assesses the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) occurring before the age of 18 years and patterns of fast-food consumption and sugary beverage consumption in adulthood. The study also examines how perceived stress and socio-economic status (SES) (college educational attainment and income) in adulthood mediate this relationship. DESIGN: Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adulthood Health (N 8599), multinomial logistic regression analyses were carried out to assess the association between ACE and unhealthy dietary behaviours in adulthood. Karlson-Holm-Breen mediation analysis is used to determine the mediating effects of SES and perceived stress. SETTING: Persons living in the USA in 2016-2018. PARTICIPANTS: Adults (n 8599) aged 33-44 years. RESULTS: The findings show an association between four or more ACE and high fast-food (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 1·436, 95 % CI = 1·040, 1·983) and high sugary beverage consumption (RRR = 1·435, 95 % CI = 1·002, 2·055). The association between ACE and high fast-food consumption is partially mediated by college educational attainment, and the association between ACE and high sugary beverage consumption is partially mediated by perceived stress and college educational attainment. CONCLUSIONS: ACE can have long-term consequences for unhealthy dietary behaviours in adulthood, and this relationship is partially due to a lower likelihood of higher perceived stress and college educational attainment among ACE-exposed persons. Future research is needed to understand further the influence of ACE on dietary patterns over the life course.

The Potential for Using a Shortened Version of the Everyday Discrimination Scale in Population Research with Young Adults: A Construct Validation Investigation.

Discrimination is associated with numerous psychological health outcomes over the life course. The nine-item Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) is one of the most widely used measures of discrimination; however, this nine-item measure may not be feasible in large-scale population health surveys where a shortened discrimination measure would be advantageous. The current study examined the construct validity of a combined two-item discrimination measure adapted from the EDS by Add Health (N = 14,839) as compared to the full nine-item EDS and a two-item EDS scale (parallel to the adapted combined measure) used in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL; N = 1,111) and National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS) studies (N = 1,055). Results identified convergence among the EDS scales, with high item-total correlations, convergent validity, and criterion validity for psychological outcomes, thus providing evidence for the construct validity of the two-item combined scale. Taken together, the findings provide support for using this reduced scale in studies where the full EDS scale is not available.

A longitudinal investigation of parenting, depression, and counseling use among Asian American adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Asian American adolescents are equally or more likely to experience depression but less likely to seek treatment for depression than adolescents from other racial and ethnic groups in the US. The current study examined the long-term effects of parental care, parental control, and parental closeness on depression and counseling use among Asian American adolescents. METHODS: Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we conducted a cross-lagged path analysis with 270 Asian American adolescents (48.1% female; 51.9% male). The study used data from Waves I, II, and III (1994-2002) with participants' mean ages ranging from 14 to 23. RESULTS: Findings indicated that the cross-sectional relationships between parenting characteristics and depression were stronger than the longitudinal relationships suggesting that parenting practices may be a stronger proximal, rather than distal, predictor of depression. Specifically, parental closeness was associated with less depression in early and mid-adolescence (age 12-18), but the relationship changed direction in young adulthood (age 18-26). Additionally, a significant interaction suggested that parental care was related to fewer depressive symptoms for those who reported high, compared to low, parental control in mid-adolescence (age 14-18). Furthermore, high parental care was associated with more counseling use at high levels of control. However, high parental care was associated with less counseling use at low levels of parental control in early adolescence. CONCLUSION: These results highlight the importance of understanding parenting characteristics using longitudinal designs when examining the development of depression and help-seeking behaviors among Asian American adolescents.

Estimating the Long-Term Causal Effects of Attending Historically Black Colleges or Universities on Depressive Symptoms.

Racism is embedded in society, and higher education is an important structure for patterning economic and health outcomes. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were founded on antiracism while predominantly White institutions (PWIs) were often founded on white supremacy. This contrast provides an opportunity to study the association between structural racism and health among Black Americans. We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to estimate the long-term causal effect of attending an HBCU (vs. PWI) on depressive symptoms among Black students in the United States from 1994-2018. While we found no overall association with attending an HBCU (vs. PWI) on depressive symptoms, we found that this association varied by baseline mental health and region, and across time. For example, among those who attended high school outside of the South, HBCU attendance was protective against depressive symptoms 7 years later, and the association was strongest for those with higher baseline depressive symptoms. We recommend equitable state and federal funding for HBCUs, and that PWIs implement and evaluate antiracist policies to improve mental health of Black students.

Race and Ethnicity, Racism, and Population Health in the United States: The Straightforward, the Complex, Innovations, and the Future.

For far too long, U.S. racialized groups have experienced human suffering and loss of life far too often and early. Thus, it is critical that the population sciences community does its part to improve the science, education, and policy in this area of study and help to eliminate ethnoracial disparities in population health. My 2022 PAA Presidential Address focuses on race and ethnicity, racism, and U.S. population health in the United States and is organized into five sections. First, I provide a descriptive overview of ethnoracial disparities in U.S. population health. Second, I emphasize the often overlooked scientific value of such descriptive work and demonstrate how such seemingly straightforward description is complicated by issues of population heterogeneity, time and space, and the complexity of human health. Third, I make the case that the population sciences have generally been far too slow in incorporating the role of racism into explanations for ethnoracial health disparities and lay out a conceptual framework for doing so. Fourth, I discuss how my research team is designing, collecting, and disseminating data for the scientific community that will have potential to, among many other purposes, create a better understanding of ethnoracial health disparities and the role of racism in producing such disparities. Finally, I close by suggesting some policy- and education-related efforts that are needed to address racism and population health within U.S. institutions.

A prospective longitudinal study of multidomain resilience among youths with and without maltreatment histories.

The majority of children with maltreatment histories do not go on to develop depression in their adolescent and adult years. These individuals are often identified as being "resilient", but this characterization may conceal difficulties that individuals with maltreatment histories might face in their interpersonal relationships, substance use, physical health, and/or socioeconomic outcomes in their later lives. This study examined how adolescents with maltreatment histories who exhibit low levels of depression function in other domains during their adult years. Longitudinal trajectories of depression (across ages 13-32) in individuals with (n = 3,809) and without (n = 8,249) maltreatment histories were modeled in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. The same "Low," "increasing," and "declining" depression trajectories in both individuals with and without maltreatment histories were identified. Youths with maltreatment histories in the "low" depression trajectory reported lower romantic relationship satisfaction, more exposure to intimate partner and sexual violence, more alcohol abuse/dependency, and poorer general physical health compared to individuals without maltreatment histories in the same "low" depression trajectory in adulthood. Findings add further caution against labeling individuals as "resilient" based on a just single domain of functioning (low depression), as childhood maltreatment has harmful effects on a broad spectrum of functional domains.

To Make and Keep Friends: The Role of Health Status in Adolescent Network Tie Formation and Persistence.

Health status may shape network structure through network dynamics (tie formation and persistence) and direction (sent and received ties), net of typical network processes. We apply Separable Temporal Exponential Random Graph Models (STERGMs) to National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health survey data (n = 1,779) to differentiate how health status shapes network sent and received tie formation and persistence. Results indicate that networks are shaped by withdrawal of adolescents experiencing poor health, highlighting the importance of separating distinct and directed processes of friendship formation and persistence when considering how health relates to adolescent social life.

Population-based RNA profiling in Add Health finds social disparities in inflammatory and antiviral gene regulation to emerge by young adulthood.

Health in later life varies significantly by individual demographic characteristics such as age, sex, and race/ethnicity, as well as by social factors including socioeconomic status and geographic region. This study examined whether sociodemographic variations in the immune and inflammatory molecular underpinnings of chronic disease might emerge decades earlier in young adulthood. Using data from 1,069 young adults from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health)-the largest nationally representative and ethnically diverse sample with peripheral blood transcriptome profiles-we analyzed variation in the expression of genes involved in inflammation and type I interferon (IFN) response as a function of individual demographic factors, sociodemographic conditions, and biobehavioral factors (smoking, drinking, and body mass index). Differential gene expression was most pronounced by sex, race/ethnicity, and body mass index (BMI), but transcriptome correlates were identified for every demographic dimension analyzed. Inflammation-related gene expression showed the most pronounced variation as a function of biobehavioral factors (BMI and smoking) whereas type I IFN-related transcripts varied most strongly as a function of individual demographic characteristics (sex and race/ethnicity). Bioinformatic analyses of transcription factor and immune-cell activation based on transcriptome-wide empirical differences identified additional effects of family poverty and geographic region. These results identify pervasive sociodemographic differences in immune-cell gene regulation that emerge by young adulthood and may help explain social disparities in the development of chronic illness and premature mortality at older ages.

The Immigrant Experience and Alcohol Use: Heart Rate as a Source of Risk and Resilience.

The immigration experience in the USA has been linked to a wide range of behavioral and physical outcomes. Studies report that immigrants, relative to native-born citizens, are less likely to develop alcohol use habits despite facing hardship during the acculturation process. Limited research, however, has examined whether and to what extent resting heart rate (RHR) plays a role in accounting for individual differences in the acculturation process in the USA. To begin to address this gap in research, cross-sectional self-report data (N = 4775) from a nationally representative sample of US adults are analyzed to examine the association between the immigrant experience, alcohol use, and drunkenness. The role of low, mean, and high RHR on this association is investigated. The results reveal that respondents with higher levels of the immigrant experience report lower levels of alcohol use and drunkenness. RHR partially conditions the relationship between the immigrant experience and alcohol use, whereby respondents with higher levels of the immigrant experience and high RHR report less alcohol use and drunkenness, compared to more native respondents with low RHR. Immigrant experience and alcohol use were associated, but not with drunkenness among respondents with average RHR levels, relative to those with low RHR levels. The results suggest that RHR may be a potential source of both risk for and resilience to the development of alcohol use behaviors among immigrants going through the acculturation process in the USA.

Children of immigrants: Racial assortative mating and the transition to adulthood.

Few studies have followed immigrant-origin individuals from adolescence to adulthood or examined their spousal choices. Using longitudinal data from Add Health, we present a life-course model that examines the differences in racial assortative mating between children of immigrants and non-immigrants. The results reveal substantial variation in racial endogamy from generation to generation. Racial endogamy was highest in the third generation, but this is due entirely to high racial endogamy among whites. Out-marriage was most pronounced among first- and second-generation immigrants. Our life-course approach shows that the effects of race and generation on intermarriage were mediated by family background (e.g. language proficiency and residence) and educational attainment (at time of marriage), a finding largely indicative of processes of marital assimilation that unfold over time and generation. Evidence of acculturation and structural assimilation, however, could not fully account for the large, persistent, and uneven effects of race and generation on interracial marriage.

One of these things is not like the other: Predictors of core and capital mentoring in adolescence.

Informal mentoring has many demonstrated impacts on young people, including increased educational attainment, economic mobility, and both physical and mental health. Emerging work on a typology within informal mentoring suggests that "core" mentors are often extended family members and provide emotional support, while "capital" mentors are connected to formal institutions and provide valued advice and social capital. The present paper contributes to this emerging body of work by examining which qualities of a young person and their environment lead to core versus capital mentoring using a nationally representative sample of youth (N = 4226). Using both a series of regression analyses and conditional inference trees, findings demonstrate the importance of racial-ethnic identity and socioeconomic status. Peabody Picture Vocabulary score, a likely indicator of socioeconomic resources, was consistently a robust indicator of capital mentoring. Implications for both practice and research are discussed.

An examination of associations between sexual assault and health problems, depression or suicidal ideation in a large nationally representative cohort of male and female 20-30-year-olds.

BACKGROUND: A long line of research has examined whether being the victim of sexual assault is associated with negative and maladaptive outcomes, but has mainly focused on women and girls. AIMS: To replicate and extend prior research by examining whether various measures of sexual assault are related to physical ill-health, depression and/or suicidal ideation, regardless of sex or age of victim. Our research questions were (1) is sexual assault related to health problems, depression and suicidal ideation and (2) do these associations differ between men and women? METHOD: We analyse data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a longitudinal study of a US nationally representative sample of nearly 21,000 young people recruited for the first wave of interviews when most of the participants were between ages 12 and 18 years. We used Wave 4 data, collected for participants who were in their 20s and 30s, on experience of both physical sexual assault and non-physical sexual assault and mental state, allowing for some characteristics measured in Wave 1. Allowing for missing data, sample sizes were between 6868 and 10,489 for the women and 6024 and 10,263 for the men. RESULTS: Statistically significant associations were revealed between the physical and non-physical measures of sexual assault and the health problems scale, the depression scale and the measure of suicidal ideation. These associations remained statistically significant even after controlling for key covariates measured at Wave 1, including exposure to delinquent peers, poverty and demographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Sexual assault at some time and of whatever kind, although more commonly reported by women than men, is similarly associated with serious physical and mental health problems during their 20s and 30s. More sequencing detail is required for better prevention of harms.

Timing to a first relationship among youth: Variability by sexual orientation development.

Romantic relationships are developmentally salient across the transition to adulthood, yet the timing to a first relationship for sexual minority youth is largely unknown and is complicated by the developmental timing of sexual orientation development. We use the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to predict the timing to a first relationship among heterosexual and sexual minority youth, defined as those with same-sex attraction and/or a sexual minority identity. We examine variability across subgroups of youth with a sexual minority status in adolescence only, in adulthood only, or in both developmental periods, and by gender. Participants with lesbian/gay sexual orientations emerging during adulthood delay a first relationship compared to their heterosexual peers. Those with bisexual orientations only in adulthood enter relationships earlier than their heterosexual peers, particularly women. Results suggest that patterns of dating relationship formations differ by distinct developmental contexts of sexual orientation development.

Risk of Food Insecurity in Young Adulthood and Longitudinal Changes in Cardiometabolic Health: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health.

BACKGROUND: Studies have demonstrated relations between food insecurity, the lack of access to enough nutritious food, and greater risk of diet-sensitive chronic diseases. However, most prior evidence relies on cross-sectional studies and self-reported disease. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to assess the longitudinal relation between risk of food insecurity in young adulthood and changes in diet-sensitive cardiometabolic health outcomes across 10 y among non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Hispanic adults. METHODS: Data from the fourth and fifth waves (n = 3992) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were used. Measures included risk of food insecurity, body weight, diabetes, and sociodemographic characteristics. Body weight and diabetes were assessed with direct measures. Mixed-effects models assessed the association of risk of food insecurity with BMI, obesity, and diabetes while accounting for sociodemographic characteristics and the complex survey design. RESULTS: Risk of food insecurity was associated with increases in BMI as well as incidence of obesity and diabetes from young to middle adulthood in unadjusted and adjusted models (all P < 0.01). In models stratified by race and ethnicity, the relations of risk of food insecurity with body weight outcomes and diabetes varied. CONCLUSIONS: Risk of food insecurity in young adulthood was related to BMI and obesity during young and middle adulthood but not in changes over time. Risk of food insecurity in young adulthood related to an increased incidence of diabetes in middle adulthood. However, the relations among specific racial and ethnic groups were unclear. Estimates of the relation between food insecurity and cardiometabolic health outcomes within racial and ethnic groups experiencing the highest prevalence of these conditions should be refined.

Childhood polyvictimization and marijuana use trajectories.

Despite public sentiment to the contrary, recreational marijuana use is deleterious to adolescent health and development. Prospective studies of marijuana use trajectories and their predictors are needed to differentiate risk profiles and inform intervention strategies. Using data on 15,960 participants in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, variable-centered approaches were used to examine the impact of childhood polyvictimization on marijuana onset, marijuana use from age 15 to 24 years, and marijuana dependence symptoms. Zero-Inflated Poisson latent class growth analysis (ZIP-LCGA) was used to identify marijuana use subgroups, and their associations with childhood polyvictimization were tested via multinomial logit regression within ZIP-LCGA. Results showed that the overall probability and frequency of marijuana use increased throughout adolescence, peaked in early adulthood, and diminished gradually thereafter. Polyvictimization was associated with earlier onset and greater overall use, frequency of use, and dependence symptoms. ZIP-LCGA uncovered four subgroups, including non-users and three classes of users: adolescence-limited users, escalators, and chronic users. Polyvictimization distinguished non-users from all classes of marijuana users. The findings underscore the lasting developmental implications of significant childhood trauma. Children who experience polyvictimization represent a group that may benefit from selective interventions aimed at preventing early, frequent, chronic, and dependent marijuana use.

Religious service attendance typologies and African American substance use: a longitudinal study of the protective effects among young adult men and women.

PURPOSE: This study sought to identify variation by gender in the associations between religious service attendance from adolescence to young adulthood and seven measures of lifetime and short-term substance use. METHODS: To conduct this nationally representative study, data from the Add Health Surveys was abstracted from Waves I and IV (N = 3,223) to construct four types of service attendance (non-attenders, attenders only as adolescents, attenders only in young adulthood, and consistent attenders). A series of logistic regressions were conducted to identify the independent effects of each pattern of service attendance on each substance among all black young adults, as well as male and female sub-samples. RESULTS: Analysis revealed consistent attenders were generally less likely to use substances, with the effects being strongest among females. Among young adult only attenders, males recorded lower odds across all three short-term measures whereas females reported lower odds only for monthly cigarette use. CONCLUSION: The protective effects of religious service attendance are more robust for African Americans who consistently attend in adolescence and young adulthood, especially among females.