A critical review on the use of artificial neural networks in olive oil production, characterization and authentication.

Artificial neural networks (ANN) are computationally based mathematical tools inspired by the fundamental cell of the nervous system, the neuron. ANN constitute a simplified artificial replica of the human brain consisting of parallel processing neural elements similar to neurons in living beings. ANN is able to store large amounts of experimental information to be used for generalization with the aid of an appropriate prediction model. ANN has proved useful for a variety of biological, medical, economic and meteorological purposes, and in agro-food science and technology. The olive oil industry has a substantial weight in Mediterranean's economy. The different steps of the olive oil production process, which include olive tree and fruit care, fruit harvest, mechanical and chemical processing, and oil packaging have been examined in depth with a view to their optimization, and so have the authenticity, sensory properties and other quality-related properties of olive oil. This paper reviews existing literature on the use of bioinformatics predictive methods based on ANN in connection with the production, processing and characterization of olive oil. It examines the state of the art in bioinformatics tools for optimizing or predicting its quality with a view to identifying potential deficiencies or aspects for improvement.

Effect of thermal treatment on the extraction efficiency, physicochemical quality of Jatropha curcas oil, and biological quality of its proteins.

Jatropha curcas seeds are an important source of oil (5-60%), used to obtain biodiesel. The generated residual paste has a high concentration of proteins (50-55%); however, the seeds contain non-nutritional factors that limit their use. The objective of this work was to analyze the effect on the physicochemical properties of the oil obtained from J. curcas seeds subjected to different thermal treatments and to evaluate the biological quality of the proteins contained in the residual cake. The best extraction of oil (95%) was obtained after 10 h from roasted or boiled seeds. In the oil from roasted samples, the acid index increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) with respect to the untreated sample, whereas the iodine index increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) in the oil extracted from the boiled samples. With respect to the proximal chemical composition of the flour, roasting and boiling treatments allowed for greater oil extraction (97 and 92%), achieving, in turn, a higher content of proteins (59.56 and 58.5 g/100 g) and fiber (6.67 and 6.67 g/100 g), and lower activity of trypsin inhibitors (45 and 38%) and phytates (63 and 72%), respectively. According to the in vivo biological quality test, conducted on Wistar rats, the thermal treatments applied to the seeds improved digestibility (> 70%) and the protein efficiency index (PER). The thermal treatment allowed extracting more efficiently the oil and improved the quality of the proteins present in the residual paste.

Advance of Microemulsion and Application for Enhanced Oil Recovery.

With the ongoing advancement in oil exploration, microemulsion, as an innovative oil displacement method, has garnered considerable attention owing to its exceptional physicochemical properties in enhancing crude oil recovery. As such, this study initially delineates the fundamental concepts, classifications, formation mechanisms, advantages, and preparation methodologies of microemulsions. Subsequently, it introduces the selection criteria for microemulsion components, followed by an elucidation of the characterization methods for microemulsions based on these criteria. Furthermore, it examines the factors influencing the efficacy of microemulsions in enhancing oil recovery through two distinct methods, along with the effects of various formulation microemulsions under laboratory and oilfield conditions. Additionally, it outlines prospects, challenges, and future development trends pertaining to microemulsions.

Demulsification of Emulsion Using Heptanoic Acid during Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction and the Characterization of Peanut Oil and Proteins Extracted.

Peanut oil body emulsion occurs during the process of aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE). The free oil is difficult to release and extract because its structure is stable and not easily destroyed. Demulsification can release free oil in an oil body emulsion, so various fatty acids were selected for the demulsification. Changes in the amount of heptanoic acid added, solid-liquid ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time were adopted to investigate demulsification, and the technological conditions of demulsification were optimized. While the optimal conditions were the addition of 1.26% of heptanoic acid, solid-liquid ratio of 1:3.25, reaction temperature of 72.7 °C, and reaction time of 55 min, the maximum free oil yield was (95.84 ± 0.19)%. The analysis of the fatty acid composition and physicochemical characterization of peanut oils extracted using four methods were studied during the AEE process. Compared with the amount of oil extracted via other methods, the unsaturated fatty acids of oils extracted from demulsification with heptanoic acid contained 78.81%, which was significantly higher than the other three methods. The results of physicochemical characterization indicated that the oil obtained by demulsification with heptanoic acid had a higher quality. According to the analysis of the amino acid composition, the protein obtained using AEE was similar to that of commercial peanut protein powder (CPPP). However, the essential amino acid content of proteins extracted via AEE was significantly higher than that of CPPP. The capacity of water (oil) holding, emulsifying activity, and foaming properties of protein obtained via AEE were better than those for CPPP. Overall, heptanoic acid demulsification is a potential demulsification method, thus, this work provides a new idea for the industrial application of simultaneous separation of oil and proteins via AEE.

Characterization of Wei Safflower Seed Oil Using Cold-Pressing and Solvent Extraction.

Wei safflower seed oil (WSO) prepared by the cold pressing method and organic solvent extraction method was characterized in this study. The yield of cold-pressed WSO (CP-WSO) was inferior to that of n-hexane-extracted WSO (HE-WSO). The physicochemical properties (refractive index, density, iodine value, insoluble impurities) and fatty acid compositions were similar, and both were rich in linoleic acid. However, CP-WSO had better color and less solvent residue. The type and content of vitamin E in CP-WSO was also superior to that in HE-WSO, which explained the high oxidative stability of CP-WSO in the Rancimat test. Our results provide a reference for the development of Wei safflower seed oil.

New findings of edible oil characterization by ultrasonic parameters.

The basic objective of the study was to confirm the usefulness of non-destructive ultrasonic testing in evaluating different edible oil samples. The experimental study was carried out for three types of edible oils (olive, sunflower, and corn) in which a 1.0 MHz ultrasound transducer was immersed. Density and viscosity values of the samples were determined simultaneously with the ultrasound tests. By themselves, ultrasound inspection, density, and viscosity, were able to characterize and distinguish each type from the others, but only the ultrasound inspection has a non-destructive nature. Moreover, significant correlations among density and viscosity with the acoustic parameters were found. The results postulate that ultrasound inspection is a fast and non-destructive tool to characterize and discriminate different types of edible oils.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids from Cannabis Sativa for Medicinal Purpose.

Over the past 20 years, the interest in Cannabis oily extracts for medicinal use compounded in pharmacy has consistently grown, along with the need to have preparations of adequate quality. Hot maceration (M) is the most frequently used method to compound oily solutions. In this work, we systematically studied the possibility of using an ultrasonic homogenizer and a sonotrode (US) as an alternative extraction method. Oily solutions were prepared using two available varieties of Cannabis for medicinal use, called FM2 and Bedrocan. All preparations resulted with an equivalent content in CBD and THC, with the advantage of a faster process using US. In particular, 10 min sonication at the amplitude optimized for the sonotrode used (2 or 7 mm) provides not statistically different total Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (M-FM2: 0.26 ± 0.02 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.19 ± 0.004 % w/w; M-Bedrocan: 1.83 ± 0.17 % w/w; US-Bedrocan: 1.98 ± 0.01 % w/w) and total cannabidiol (M-FM2: 0.59 ± 0.04 % w/w; US-FM2: 0.58 ± 0.01 % w/w) amounts extracted in refined olive oil. It can therefore be confirmed that sonotrode is an efficient and fast extraction technique and its use is without negative consequence on the solvent properties. Despite DSC evidencing that both maceration and sonication modify the Tonset and enthalpy of the event at about -10 °C, the qualitative characteristics of the oil remained constant for the two treatments and similar to the starting material.

Solvent extraction and characterization of Brassica carinata oils as promising alternative feedstock for bio-jet fuel production.

As a fossil fuel substitute, bio-jet fuel derived from inedible oilseed crops has the potential to improve energy security, decrease carbon footprint, and promote agricultural economy and social development. The efficient production of bio-jet fuels depends on the identification and characterization of eco-friendly and sustainable feedstocks. Brassica carinata (Arun Braun) cultivars are among the most significant industrial oilseeds that can be utilized as alternative feedstocks in the aviation industry. The study thoroughly evaluated four non-food Brassica carinata cultivars that are indigenous to Ethiopia to determine their suitability as substitute feedstocks for the production of bio-jet fuel. The effects of solvent extraction parameters were studied using response surface methodology with Box-Behnken design in an isothermal batch reactor. Physicochemical characterization, fatty acids profiling, ultimate analysis, analysis of metals and phosphorus concentration, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy characterization, and calorific value analyses were performed to characterize the properties of oils. Accordingly, oil yields ranged from 35.93 to 45.25%. Erucic acid (EA) was the most predominant fatty acid in all oils, accounting for 42-50%, of Derash and Yellow Dodolla oils, respectively, making Yellow Dodolla oil a super-high erucic acid oil. In comparison to the other oils, Yellow Dodolla was observed to be the least oxygenated oil, with a 7.80% oxygen content and oxygen to carbon ratio of 0.07, which may enable it to consume a very limited amount of hydrogen gas during hydrodeoxygenation in bio-jet fuel production. It was determined that, except for calcium and phosphorous levels in Tesfa, the concentrations of the metals and phosphorous were very small. Alkanes, alkenes, carboxylic acids, esters, alcohols, aromatics, and olefins were among the most significant and main functional groups identified. Our extraction and characterization results revealed that the Brassica carinata cultivars have very high oil contents, better physicochemical properties, excellent fatty acid profiles, and very low concentrations of heteroatoms (nitrogen, sulfur), metals and phosphorous concentrations, and very low level of oxygen to carbon ratios, making the oils, notably Yellow Dodolla oil, very high quality and promising alternative feedstocks for upgrading of the oils into bio-jet fuels through hydroprocessing pathway.

Essential oil characterization of Prunus spinosa L., Salvia officinalis L., Eucalyptus globulus L., Melissa officinalis L. and Mentha x piperita L. by a volatolomic approach.

In this study a volatolomic approach is proposed for the characterization of the volatile organic compound (VOC) composition of essential oils (EOs) extracted from common aromatic plants. Five species (Prunus spinosa L., Salvia officinalis L., Eucalyptus globulus L., Melissa officinalis L. and Mentha x piperita L.), particularly widespread in Southern Italy, were selected as recognized sources of natural bioactive compounds with beneficial properties. Hydro distillation and solid-liquid extraction with ethanol at different percentages were used to obtain EOs, and their extraction capabilities were compared analyzing chromatographic profiles obtained by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The analytical procedure was optimized in term of SPME fiber, adsorption time and desorption time. GC-MS analyses were performed allowing the profiling of the VOC fingerprint in each plant extract. Experimental data were processed by a statistical multivariate approach (Analysis of Variance and Principal Component Analysis obtained for compounds and chemical classes), confirming that EO aroma profiles were statistically different for each of the selected five plants. The proposed volatolomic approach has proved to be an easy and efficient tool to study the aroma profile, allowing the collection of specific information and opening new perspectives and opportunities for the detection and identification of VOCs in agricultural and ecological applications.

Comprehensive off-line silver phase liquid chromatography × gas chromatography with flame ionization and vacuum ultraviolet detection for the detailed characterization of mineral oil aromatic hydrocarbons.

Highly purified mineral oils used for the elaboration of pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic products can contain residual mineral oil aromatic hydrocarbons (MOAH). Quantification of the MOAH level as well as detailed characterization of the aromatic species present is important for safety evaluations and for optimization of the purification process. Two comprehensive off-line silver phase liquid chromatography × gas chromatography (AgLC × GC) methods, one with flame ionization detection (FID) and another with vacuum ultraviolet detection (VUV), were developed for MOAH analysis. The methods showed a better resolution between the MOSH and MOAH groups compared to the traditional online LC-GC methods due to the different retention mechanisms employed in the two dimensions, albeit that the gain was less than seen e.g. in edible oil analysis. An important advantage of the new comprehensive AgLC × GC methods is that the use of markers to determine the MOSH/MOAH cut-point is no longer needed, because all the eluent coming from the LC separation is transferred as narrow fractions to the GC. Due to the use of silver based stationary phases in the first separation dimension, a group-type separation of the mineral oil according to the degree of aromaticity (aliphatics, mono-aromatics and poly-aromatics) was obtained. Moreover, thanks to the use of VUV detection, the new method also delivered additional structural information on the different groups of compounds present.

Some physicochemical characteristics of pinus (Pinus halepensis Mill., Pinus pinea L., Pinus pinaster and Pinus canariensis) seeds from North Algeria, their lipid profiles and volatile contents.

Physicochemical characteristics of seeds of some pinus species (Pinus halepensis Mill., Pinus pinea L., Pinus pinaster and Pinus canariensis) grown in North Algeria were determined. The results showed that the seeds consist of 19.8-36.7% oil, 14.25-26.62% protein, 7.8-8.6% moisture. Phosphorus, potassium and magnesium were the predominant elements present in seeds. Pinus seed's oil physicochemical properties show acid values (4.9-68.9), iodine values (93.3-160.4) and saponification values (65.9-117.9). Oil analysis showed that the major unsaturated fatty acids for the four species were linoleic acid (30-59%) and oleic acid (17.4-34.6%), while the main saturated fatty acid was palmitic acid (5-29%). Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry analysis of P. halepensis Mill., P. pinaster and P. canariensis volatile oils indicated that the major volatile compound was the limonene with relative percentage of 3.1, 7.5 and 10.8, respectively.

Characterization of glyceridic and unsaponifiable compounds of Sacha inchi (Plukenetia huayllabambana L.) oils.

This work deals with the characterization of the main glyceridic and unsaponifiable components of oils obtained from Sacha inchi (Plukenetia huayllabambana L.) seed ecotypes collected during two harvests in the Department of Amazonas in Peru. The seed-oil yield was 30.3-41.2%; standing out are the high percentages of the ω3- and ω6-fatty acids series whose ranges lie within those of the present Regulation for Sacha inchi oils. Triacylglycerols with even equivalent carbon number (ECN; 36-42) were the main components. Minor glyceridic polar compounds such as oxidized triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, and free fatty acids were determined by high-performance size exclusion chromatography. The low campesterol/stigmasterol ratio (1:6), unusual in the majority of vegetable oils, stands out. Regarding aliphatic hydrocarbons, these oils showed a particular profile for the saturated series of odd and even carbon atom numbers. According to our results Sacha inchi P. huayllabambana oils can be offered as a good alternative to P. volubilis, the species mainly commercialized for this vegetable oil.