A multimodal interface for speech perception: the role of the left superior temporal sulcus in social cognition and autism.

Multimodal integration is crucial for human interaction, in particular for social communication, which relies on integrating information from various sensory modalities. Recently a third visual pathway specialized in social perception was proposed, which includes the right superior temporal sulcus (STS) playing a key role in processing socially relevant cues and high-level social perception. Importantly, it has also recently been proposed that the left STS contributes to audiovisual integration of speech processing. In this article, we propose that brain areas along the right STS that support multimodal integration for social perception and cognition can be considered homologs to those in the left, language-dominant hemisphere, sustaining multimodal integration of speech and semantic concepts fundamental for social communication. Emphasizing the significance of the left STS in multimodal integration and associated processes such as multimodal attention to socially relevant stimuli, we underscore its potential relevance in comprehending neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by challenges in social communication such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further research into this left lateral processing stream holds the promise of enhancing our understanding of social communication in both typical development and ASD, which may lead to more effective interventions that could improve the quality of life for individuals with atypical neurodevelopment.

Mapping the differential impact of spontaneous and conversational laughter on brain and mind: an fMRI study in autism.

Spontaneous and conversational laughter are important socio-emotional communicative signals. Neuroimaging findings suggest that non-autistic people engage in mentalizing to understand the meaning behind conversational laughter. Autistic people may thus face specific challenges in processing conversational laughter, due to their mentalizing difficulties. Using fMRI, we explored neural differences during implicit processing of these two types of laughter. Autistic and non-autistic adults passively listened to funny words, followed by spontaneous laughter, conversational laughter, or noise-vocoded vocalizations. Behaviourally, words plus spontaneous laughter were rated as funnier than words plus conversational laughter, and the groups did not differ. However, neuroimaging results showed that non-autistic adults exhibited greater medial prefrontal cortex activation while listening to words plus conversational laughter, than words plus genuine laughter, while autistic adults showed no difference in medial prefrontal cortex activity between these two laughter types. Our findings suggest a crucial role for the medial prefrontal cortex in understanding socio-emotionally ambiguous laughter via mentalizing. Our study also highlights the possibility that autistic people may face challenges in understanding the essence of the laughter we frequently encounter in everyday life, especially in processing conversational laughter that carries complex meaning and social ambiguity, potentially leading to social vulnerability. Therefore, we advocate for clearer communication with autistic people.

Enhanced neural synchronization during social communications between dyads with high autistic traits.

Autism is characterized by atypical social communication styles. To investigate whether individuals with high autistic traits could still have effective social communication among each other, we compared the behavioral patterns and communication quality within 64 dyads of college students paired with both high, both low, and mixed high-low (HL) autistic traits, with their gender matched. Results revealed that the high-high (HH) autistic dyads exhibited atypical behavioral patterns during conversations, including reduced mutual gaze, communicational turns, and emotional sharing compared with the low-low and/or HL autistic dyads. However, the HH autistic dyads displayed enhanced interpersonal neural synchronization during social communications measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy, suggesting an effective communication style. Besides, they also provided more positive subjective evaluations of the conversations. These findings highlight the potential for alternative pathways to effectively communicate with the autistic community, contribute to a deeper understanding of how high autistic traits influence social communication dynamics among autistic individuals, and provide important insights for the clinical practices for supporting autistic people.

CRISPR-Cas9 editing of the arginine-vasopressin V1a receptor produces paradoxical changes in social behavior in Syrian hamsters.

Studies from a variety of species indicate that arginine­vasopressin (AVP) and its V1a receptor (Avpr1a) play a critical role in the regulation of a range of social behaviors by their actions in the social behavior neural network. To further investigate the role of AVPRs in social behavior, we performed CRISPR-Cas9­mediated editing at the Avpr1a gene via pronuclear microinjections in Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), a species used extensively in behavioral neuroendocrinology because they produce a rich suite of social behaviors. Using this germ-line gene-editing approach, we generated a stable line of hamsters with a frame-shift mutation in the Avpr1a gene resulting in the null expression of functional Avpr1as. Avpr1a knockout (KO) hamsters exhibited a complete lack of Avpr1a-specific autoradiographic binding throughout the brain, behavioral insensitivity to centrally administered AVP, and no pressor response to a peripherally injected Avpr1a-specific agonist, thus confirming the absence of functional Avpr1as in the brain and periphery. Contradictory to expectations, Avpr1a KO hamsters exhibited substantially higher levels of conspecific social communication (i.e., odor-stimulated flank marking) than their wild-type (WT) littermates. Furthermore, sex differences in aggression were absent, as both male and female KOs exhibited more aggression toward same-sex conspecifics than did their WT littermates. Taken together, these data emphasize the importance of comparative studies employing gene-editing approaches and suggest the startling possibility that Avpr1a-specific modulation of the social behavior neural network may be more inhibitory than permissive.

Face-Selective Patches in Marmosets Are Involved in Dynamic and Static Facial Expression Processing.

The correct identification of facial expressions is critical for understanding the intention of others during social communication in the daily life of all primates. Here we used ultra-high-field fMRI at 9.4 T to investigate the neural network activated by facial expressions in awake New World common marmosets from both male and female sex, and to determine the effect of facial motions on this network. We further explored how the face-patch network is involved in the processing of facial expressions. Our results show that dynamic and static facial expressions activate face patches in temporal and frontal areas (O, PV, PD, MD, AD, and PL) as well as in the amygdala, with stronger responses for negative faces, also associated with an increase of the respiration rates of the monkey. Processing of dynamic facial expressions involves an extended network recruiting additional regions not known to be part of the face-processing network, suggesting that face motions may facilitate the recognition of facial expressions. We report for the first time in New World marmosets that the perception and identification of changeable facial expressions, vital for social communication, recruit face-selective brain patches also involved in face detection processing and are associated with an increase of arousal.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Recent research in humans and nonhuman primates has highlighted the importance to correctly recognize and process facial expressions to understand others' emotions in social interactions. The current study focuses on the fMRI responses of emotional facial expressions in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a New World primate species sharing several similarities of social behavior with humans. Our results reveal that temporal and frontal face patches are involved in both basic face detection and facial expression processing. The specific recruitment of these patches for negative faces associated with an increase of the arousal level show that marmosets process facial expressions of their congener, vital for social communication.

The profile of social communication in Dravet syndrome.

Dravet syndrome (DS) presents a multifaceted clinical picture marked by epilepsy, cognitive impairments and behavioral disorders that progresses throughout development. Behavioral disorders include impairments in social relationships and communication, with frequent diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. This study focused on comprehensively evaluating and comparing social communication profiles among a group of 43 children with Dravet syndrome, 30 children with level 1 autism spectrum disorder, 36 with social (pragmatic) communication disorder, and 18 with intellectual disability. Using validated tools like the Childhood Autism Spectrum Test and Children's Communication Checklist, distinct patterns of social communication deficits were delineated. Our findings indicate that children with Dravet syndrome experience challenges in social relationships, primarily due to difficulties in use of pragmatic language. Areas such as range of interests and social interaction are less affected compared to those with ASD, emphasizing differing profiles between the conditions. While children with DS and ID may have similar intellectual functioning, the different social communication deficits in DS indicate their role in the DS phenotype beyond ID. These results underscore the unique social communication profile of DS and emphasizes the importance of tailored interventions and deep phenotyping efforts for effective DS management.

Associations of gestational and childhood exposure to lead, cadmium, and fluoride with cognitive abilities, behavior, and social communication at 4 years of age: NICE birth cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Early-life lead exposure affects cognitive development and emerging evidence suggests similar effects of cadmium and fluoride. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of gestational and childhood exposure to lead, cadmium, and fluoride on cognitive abilities and behavioral and social communication problems. METHODS: We studied 470 pregnant women (gestational week 29) and their 4-year-old children from the NICE cohort in northern Sweden. Concentrations of erythrocyte lead and cadmium and urinary cadmium were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and urinary fluoride with an ion-selective electrode. Urinary concentrations were specific-gravity adjusted. Associations of log2-transformed exposure concentrations with cognitive abilities (full-scale IQ and verbal comprehension by Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition), behavioral problems (Child Behavior Checklist), and social communication (Social Responsiveness Scale-Second Edition) were evaluated with multivariable-adjusted linear regression analysis. RESULTS: Both gestational and cord erythrocyte lead concentrations were non-significantly inversely associated with child cognitive abilities (full-scale IQ: B [95%CI]: -1.2 [-2.9, 0.5] and -1.6 [-3.7, 0.4], respectively; per doubling of exposure). Similarly, both gestational and child urinary cadmium were inversely associated with cognitive abilities (full-scale IQ: -1.1 [-2.5, 0.3] and -1.1 [-2.5, 0.4], verbal comprehension: -1.2 [-3.1, 0.6] and -1.4 [-3.4, 0.6], respectively). Urinary fluoride concentrations showed no association with cognitive abilities. However, gestational fluoride was associated with increasing externalizing problems (0.9 [-0.3, 2.0]) and ADHD raw scores (0.3 [0.0, 0.6]). Childhood erythrocyte lead and urinary cadmium were non-significantly associated with increased behavioral problems (lead with total problems: 1.2 [-0.4, 2.9] and internalizing problems: 1.5 [-0.4, 3.4]; cadmium with externalizing problems: 1.1 [-0.2, 2.4]). CONCLUSION: Despite non-significant associations, both lead and cadmium exposure showed consistent inverse associations with cognitive abilities at 4 years, whereas associations with behavioral problems were less conclusive, especially for cadmium. Results on fluoride indicated association with externalizing problems, including ADHD, but prevalence of behavioral problems was low, increasing uncertainty.

Study protocol of a randomized control trial on the effectiveness of improvisational music therapy for autistic children.

BACKGROUND: Music therapy is the clinical use of musical interventions to improve mental and physical health across multiple domains, including social communication. Autistic children, who have difficulties in social communication and often increased anxiety, tend to show a strong preference for music, because it can be structured and systematic, and therefore more predictable than social interaction. This makes music therapy a promising medium for therapeutic support and intervention. Previous clinical trials of music therapy compared to traditional therapy for autistic children have shown encouraging but nevertheless mixed results. KEY AIMS: The primary aim is to conduct a randomised controlled trial (RCT) of improvisational music therapy for autistic children and test its effectiveness in at improving social communication and wellbeing, and to reduce anxiety. RESEARCH PLAN: The RCT will be conducted with 200 autistic children in the UK aged 7 to 11 years old. Participants will be randomly assigned to either improvisational music therapy or support as usual. The trial will be an assessor-blind, pragmatic two-arm cluster RCT comparing the impact of 12-weeks of improvisational music therapy in addition to support as usual, vs. support as usual for autistic children. METHODS: Researchers who are blind to which arm the children are in will conduct assessments and obtain data via caregiver reports. The primary outcome will be the absolute change in the total score of the Brief Observation of Social Communication Change (BOSCC) assessed at baseline, T1 (13 weeks) and T2 (39 weeks) follow-ups. The BOSCC consists of specific items that were developed to identify changes in social-communication behaviours. Secondary outcome measures include: (1) Parent reported anxiety scale for youth with ASD (Note that we do not use the term 'ASD' or Autism Spectrum Disorder, because many autistic people feel it is stigmatising. Instead, we use the term 'autism') (PRAS-ASD) (2) Young Child Outcome Rating Scale, for wellbeing (YCORS), (3) Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ); and (4) Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale (VABS). (5) The Children's Communication Checklist-2 (CCC-2) will be completed to evaluate pragmatic speech with fluent speakers only; (6) The Music Engagement Scale (MES); and (7) Assessment of the Quality of Relationship (AQR) will be used to evaluate the child-therapist relationships using video-analysis of music therapy sessions. Additional data will be collected by administering the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI-II), Music at Home Questionnaire (M@H), and children's versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ). Audio and video data from the therapy sessions will be collected and analysed (using both human and computer-based feature-coding, e.g., machine learning and AI-driven methods) to identify how music and non-musical interactions foster change throughout the therapy. DISCUSSION: This study aims to observe if the interactions, engagement, and therapeutic modalities fostered during music therapy sessions can translate to non-musical contexts and improve autistic children's social communication skills, identifying possible mediating factors contributing to the effectiveness of music therapy, potentially informing policy making and governance. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This randomised control trial is registered with the NIH U.S. National Library of Medicine:  https://clinicaltrials.gov/search?term=NCT06016621 , clinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT0601662, Registration Date 19th August 2023.

Screening preterm-born infants for autistic traits may help to identify social communication difficulties at five years of age.

AIM: This study compared neurodevelopmental screening questionnaires completed when preterm-born children reached 2 years of corrected age with social communication skills at 5.5 years of age. METHODS: Eligible subjects were born in 2011 at 24-34 weeks of gestation, participated in a French population-based epidemiological study and were free of motor and sensory impairment at 2 years of corrected age. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ) and the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) were used at 2 years and the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) at 5.5 years of age. RESULTS: We focused on 2119 children. At 2 years of corrected age, the M-CHAT showed autistic traits in 20.7%, 18.5% and 18.2% of the children born at 24-26, 27-31 and 32-34 weeks of gestation, respectively (p = 0.7). At 5.5 years of age, 12.6%, 12.7% and 9.6% risked social communication difficulties, with an SCQ score ≥90th percentile (p = 0.2). A positive M-CHAT score at 2 years was associated with higher risks of social communication difficulties at 5.5 years of age (odds ratio 3.46, 95% confidence interval 2.04-5.86, p < 0.001). Stratifying ASQ scores produced similar results. CONCLUSION: Using parental neurodevelopmental screening questionnaires for preterm-born children helped to identify the risk of later social communication difficulties.

Family members' and friends' reports after standard and intensive group treatment for social communication difficulties following acquired brain injury - a mixed method approach.

OBJECTIVE: To examine family members/friends' perception of change following standard and intensive group interactive structured treatment (GIST) for persons with social communication difficulties (SCDs). METHODS: A parallel mixed methods design combining data from questionnaires, the Goal Attainment Scale, and interviews. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-nine adult (>18 years) family members/friends (69.4% female) of persons with SCDs and acquired brain injury (ABI) (cohabitating partner, 53.1%; other relatives, 30.6%; friends, 16.3%). INTERVENTION: Standard GIST consisted of 12 weekly outpatient sessions (2.5 h). Intensive GIST consisted of 4 weeks of inpatient rehabilitation (2 × 3 days/week, 2 × 4 days/week). Both treatments included 3- and 6-month follow-ups. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Quantitative measures (n = 49) included the following informant reports: Latrobe Communication Questionnaire (LCQ), Social Communication Skills Questionnaire-Adapted (SCSQ-A), Behavior Rating Inventory for Executive Functions-Adult version (BRIEF-A), and Goal Attainment Scale. The qualitative measure (n=9) was an interview performed at 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Converging results were found, suggesting a perceived positive change over time for both standard and intensive GIST, with no substantial differences reported between the treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Family members/friends reported improved social communication skills of the persons with SCDs following standard and intensive GIST. However, the integration of data showed the complexity of assessing SCDs and the need for further investigation.

Factors related to social inferencing performance in moderate-severe, chronic TBI.

OBJECTIVE: Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), deficits in social cognition are common. Social inferencing is a crucial component of social cognition that enables an individual to understand the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of a communication partner when this information is not explicitly stated. Existing literature suggests a variety of factors contribute to social inferencing success (e.g. biological sex, executive functioning), yet findings are not conclusive, largely because these factors have been examined in isolation. METHOD: In this cross-sectional study, stepwise regression with cross validation was used to examine the extent that several theoretically motivated factors were associated with social inferencing (measured by performance on The Awareness of Social Inference Test [TASIT]) in adult participants with TBI (n = 105). Demographic information, executive functioning, aggression, emotional functioning measures, and participation in society were all examined in relation to social inferencing performance. RESULTS: The findings confirm the importance of higher-level cognitive skills (i.e. executive functioning) in social inferencing, and advance the literature by underlining the potential importance of productive participation in social inferencing performance. CONCLUSION: This study innovatively highlights factors linked with social inferencing skills and, in doing so, how deficits in social inferencing might manifest in the lives of individuals with TBI.

AST-001 versus placebo for social communication in children with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized clinical trial.

AIM: This study examined the efficacy of AST-001 for the core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. METHODS: This phase 2 clinical trial consisted of a 12-week placebo-controlled main study, a 12-week extension, and a 12-week follow-up in children aged 2 to 11 years with ASD. The participants were randomized in a 1:1:1 ratio to a high-dose, low-dose, or placebo-to-high-dose control group during the main study. The placebo-to-high-dose control group received placebo during the main study and high-dose AST-001 during the extension. The a priori primary outcome was the mean change in the Adaptive Behavior Composite (ABC) score of the Korean Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales II (K-VABS-II) from baseline to week 12. RESULTS: Among 151 enrolled participants, 144 completed the main study, 140 completed the extension, and 135 completed the follow-up. The mean K-VABS-II ABC score at the 12th week compared with baseline was significantly increased in the high-dose group (P = 0.042) compared with the placebo-to-high-dose control group. The mean CGI-S scores were significantly decreased at the 12th week in the high-dose (P = 0.046) and low-dose (P = 0.017) groups compared with the placebo-to-high-dose control group. During the extension, the K-VABS-II ABC and CGI-S scores of the placebo-to-high-dose control group changed rapidly after administration of high-dose AST-001 and caught up with those of the high-dose group at the 24th week. AST-001 was well tolerated with no safety concern. The most common adverse drug reaction was diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of AST-001 for the core symptoms of ASD.

A scoping review of oral language and social communication abilities in children with Tourette syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Children with Tourette syndrome (TS) have historically experienced problems in academic and social settings, yet their language and communication abilities have not been extensively researched. AIMS: This scoping review maps the literature on the oral language and social communication abilities of children with TS in order to describe the nature of the current literature, present a summary of major findings and identify where gaps exist. METHODS: A scoping review was completed to identify studies measuring the oral language or social communication abilities of children with TS. A systematic search of six electronic databases was conducted to obtain published and unpublished literature. All English studies measuring the oral language or social communication abilities of children with TS were included. Information was extracted from records and knowledge was synthesised in a narrative summary. MAIN CONTRIBUTION: We identified 56 records for inclusion. Almost all records were located in journals within the fields of psychology and psychiatry. Skills most often studied were verbal IQ and verbal fluency. The literature suggests an increased prevalence of language disorders and social communication problems in children with TS; however, literature comprehensively detailing these challenges was scarce. Language strengths were identified in verbal intelligence, story/sentence recall, categorisation and performance on tasks at the single-word level. CONCLUSIONS: Oral language and social communication skills are important for academic and social success. This review brings scattered literature together to provide up-to-date information about language in children with TS and highlights that there are considerable gaps in our knowledge about language and communication in this population. This scoping review can inform future research and support speech language pathologists in the assessment of young people with TS. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) working in various contexts (e.g., schools, mental health teams) are likely to encounter children with Tourette syndrome (TS); however, the description of this population and potential communication characteristics is not well represented in the SLP literature. Previous literature reviews have reported strengths in verbal fluency and morphological processing. Challenges in expressive language, higher order language, social cognition and a propensity towards autistic traits have also been identified. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This review differs from previous narrative reviews by employing a systematic approach to searching for literature. As a result, we identified 25 additional studies that had not been cited in previous reviews and additional relevant findings in 23 previously reviewed studies. This review confirms several previous conclusions about language in children with TS and extends or clarifies several others, thereby providing the most current information on oral language and social communication abilities. The use of current taxonomies of language and social communication helps to organise this literature for clinicians and researchers in speech-language pathology and identifies a need for further research from the SLP perspective. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? These results imply that SLPs should screen children with TS for language disorders and investigate social communication and social interaction development. Clinicians can expect greater challenges in language and communication development for children with complex forms of TS (i.e., those who exhibit co-occurring conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder). The multidisciplinary nature of the current literature implies that clinical collaboration with other disciplines will be of particular benefit to serving this group of children.

Revising the Pragmatics Profile of Everyday Communication Skills for traumatic brain injury: An international Delphi study.

BACKGROUND: Assessment tools that assess pragmatic skills in adults with a mild-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) are hard to access, not person-centred and have a high risk of clinician bias. The Pragmatics Profile is an informant report tool that was originally designed to assess pragmatic skills in people with a developmental disability. AIMS: The aim of this study was to seek consensus from a panel of experts and create a version of the Pragmatics Profile for the TBI population. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A three-round modified Delphi methodology panel of 13 experts were invited to comment anonymously on the suitability of each question from the Pragmatics Profile modified for those with TBI until ≥ 80% agreement was reached. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The Pragmatics Profile (TBI) included 66 questions that achieved consensus after three rounds of the Delphi panel. Qualitative analysis illuminated themes relating to adults with TBI and the need to include contextual factors. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The outcome of this project was a revised version of the Pragmatics Profile which is suitable for adults with a mild-severe TBI, informed by experts and freely available online. Future research exploring the tool's utility and acceptability is the next step in its evaluation. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject Assessment of the everyday functional use of language is challenging but vital. This is particularly true for those who have traumatic brain injury (TBI) where the communication outcomes can be highly variable and may include difficulties with conversational turn-taking, topic maintenance and reading social cues. There are limited tools available to clinicians and those tend to be rating scales or checklists which have a high risk of clinician bias. Available tools have a limited ability to capture the individual's personal social communication goals. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study created an online Pragmatics Profile (PP) for TBI based on experts' opinions. This paper details the themes that emerged during the process of revising the PP for those with TBI. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? The PP-TBI adds to the toolkit for speech and language therapists working with people with TBI. It meets recent recommendations in the literature to create an interview-based tool. The versatility of an online tool combined with revised input from a panel of experts increases the likelihood that clinicians will utilise this tool. Given the long-term use of the original PP by clinicians for almost 30 years and a focus on personalised care, the format and approach are also likely to be acceptable to clinicians.

How language affects social cognition and emotional competence in typical and atypical development: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The ability to understand the mental state of others (social cognition), as well as language, is crucial for children to have good social adaptation. Social cognition (SC) has been shown to be a hierarchical model of three factors (Cognitive, intermediate and affective SC) interrelated with linguistic processes. Children on the autism spectrum and children with developmental language disorder (DLD) or social communication disorder (SCD) manifest language and SC difficulties, albeit in different ways. AIMS: This systematic review aims to find how language and SC interact with each other and identify linguistic and socio-affective profiles in the target population. METHODS: About 1593 articles were systematically reviewed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guide in November 2022, obtaining, through inclusion/exclusion criteria, a total of 38 articles for qualitative assessment. The majority of them were on autism (26) or DLD (14) and to a lesser extent SCD (3). MAIN CONTRIBUTION: Although SC is related to all components of language, SC is strongly related to narrative and morphosyntax and partially related to lexicon. Pragmatics shows a complex relation with SC due to greater sensitivity to other factors such as age or task, and prosody appears to be more related to emotional processes. Besides, autistic, SCD and DLD children showed differences in their language and socio-affective performance. Mainstream DLD children have lower performance in general language, where autistic and SCD children have more linguistic variation and are lower in pragmatic and SC tasks, SCD children being more associated with language production difficulties and autistic children with both receptive and productive language. CONCLUSION: Each language component has a different interaction with SC. Likewise, different linguistic profiles are partially found for each disorder. These results are important for future lines of research focusing on specific components of interaction and socio-emotional processes, as well as for clinical and educational treatment. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject The hierarchical model of Schurz et al. (2021), divide social cognition into three brain constructs: cognitive social cognition (CSC), affective social cognition (ASC) and intermediate social cognition (ISC). They observe a large relationship between language and ISC, a fact that has been corroborated with some other studies. Studies have also found lower linguistic and socio-affective abilities in children with autism and language and communication disorders compared with children with neurotypical development, and large behavioural and neurocognitive overlaps between these disorders (Durrleman et al., 2019; Löytömäki et al., 2019). What this paper adds to existing knowledge This is the first review that relates all linguistic components (narrative, lexicon, morphosyntax, pragmatic and prosody) with the three constructs of social cognition (Cognitive, intermediate and affective). Moreover, it is the first review that studies the socio-linguistic factors comparing autism, developmental language disorder and social communication disorder with each other and with neurotypical development in children aged from 4 to 9 years. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Understanding how language and social cognition interact with each other in autism spectrum disorder, developmental language disorder and social communication disorder allows us to trace socio-linguistic profiles for each of the studied disorders, understand better children with these difficulties, and, with this, find specific potential intervention points to improve and prevent these difficulties.

Assessing the Impact of Bilingualism on the Linguistic Skills of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Greece: A Scoping Review.

(1) Background and Objectives: This review aims to identify the latest literature on the possible effect of bilingualism on the linguistic skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) residing in Greece. (2) Materials and Methods: The literature was searched in the databases of Scopus and PubMed by selecting articles and by reviewing four studies published in peer-reviewed journals. This Scoping Review is based on the standards of PRISMA recommendations for scoping reviews, while the PCC framework was used as a guide to construct clear and meaningful objectives and eligibility criteria. (3) Results: The publications included in the review addressed a variety of language-related skills, including morphology, the syntax-pragmatics interface, narrative ability, as well as both receptive and expressive language skills. (4) Conclusions: Three out of four studies provide evidence that bilingual ASD children are not disadvantaged compared to monolingual peers but rather enjoy some benefits, to a certain extent, due to bilingualism. However, the number of the reviewed studies as well as the limitations of the studies themselves render this conclusion tentative. Additionally, the findings set guidelines that speech therapists, educators, psychologists, and doctors in the Greek context need to follow when treating or educating bilingual children with ASD.

Maladaptive Laterality in Cortical Networks Related to Social Communication in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Neuroimaging studies of individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) consistently find an aberrant pattern of reduced laterality in brain networks that support functions related to social communication and language. However, it is unclear how the underlying functional organization of these brain networks is altered in ASD individuals. We tested four models of reduced laterality in a social communication network in 70 ASD individuals (14 females) and a control group of the same number of tightly matched typically developing (TD) individuals (19 females) using high-quality resting-state fMRI data and a method of measuring patterns of functional laterality across the brain. We found that a functionally defined social communication network exhibited the typical pattern of left laterality in both groups, whereas there was a significant increase in within- relative to across-hemisphere connectivity of homotopic regions in the right hemisphere in ASD individuals. Furthermore, greater within- relative to across-hemisphere connectivity in the left hemisphere was positively correlated with a measure of verbal ability in both groups, whereas greater within- relative to across-hemisphere connectivity in the right hemisphere in ASD, but not TD, individuals was negatively correlated with the same verbal measure. Crucially, these differences in patterns of laterality were not found in two other functional networks and were specifically correlated to a measure of verbal ability but not metrics of other core components of the ASD phenotype. These results suggest that previous reports of reduced laterality in social communication regions in ASD is because of the two hemispheres functioning more independently than seen in TD individuals, with the atypical right-hemisphere network component being maladaptive.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A consistent neuroimaging finding in individuals with ASD is an aberrant pattern of reduced laterality of the brain networks that support functions related to social communication and language. We tested four models of reduced laterality in a social communication network in ASD individuals and a TD control group using high-quality resting-state fMRI data. Our results suggest that reduced laterality of social communication regions in ASD may be because of the two hemispheres functioning more independently than seen in TD individuals, with atypically greater within- than across-hemisphere connectivity in the right hemisphere being maladaptive.

Different functional connectivity optimal frequency in autism compared with healthy controls and the relationship with social communication deficits: Evidence from gene expression and behavior symptom analyses.

Studies have reported that different brain regions/connections possess distinct frequency properties, which are related to brain function. Previous studies have proposed altered brain activity frequency and frequency-specific functional connectivity (FC) patterns in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), implying the varied dominant frequency of FC in ASD. However, the difference of the dominant frequency of FC between ASD and healthy controls (HCs) remains unclear. In the present study, the dominant frequency of FC was measured by FC optimal frequency, which was defined as the intermediate of the frequency bin at which the FC strength could reach the maximum. A multivariate pattern analysis was conducted to determine whether the FC optimal frequency in ASD differs from that in HCs. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) and enrichment analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between the FC optimal frequency difference of ASD/HCs and cortical gene expression. PLSR analyses were also performed to explore the relationship between FC optimal frequency and the clinical symptoms of ASD. Results showed a significant difference of FC optimal frequency between ASD and HCs. Some genes whose cortical expression patterns are related to the FC optimal frequency difference of ASD/HCs were enriched for social communication problems. Meanwhile, the FC optimal frequency in ASD was significantly related to social communication symptoms. These results may help us understand the neuro-mechanism of the social communication deficits in ASD.

The Pull-to-Sit Task: Examining Infant Postural Development in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the predictive relationship between early trajectories of postural and head control during a pull-to-sit task and later autism diagnostic and developmental outcomes. STUDY DESIGN: Using a prospective longitudinal design, postural skills of 100 infants at elevated and low familial likelihood of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were evaluated using a pull-to-sit task monthly from age 1 month to 6 months. At age 24 months, infants were seen for a developmental and diagnostic evaluation completed by examiners masked to participant group. Latent growth curve models were used to compare early trajectories of pull-to-sit performance in infants later diagnosed with ASD and typically developing infants and to predict developmental outcomes. RESULTS: Pull-to-sit trajectories did not differ in infants with an elevated likelihood of ASD or infants with ASD compared with low-likelihood and typically developing infants, but infants with ASD were more likely to exhibit a head lag by age 4 months. In addition, pull-to-sit trajectories were predictive of social and speech skills 2 years later. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the link between very early pull-to-sit skills and later social and language outcomes. Atypical postural development and persistent presence of head lag may be important early indicators of social and language vulnerabilities, including ASD.

Sex differences in conduct and emotional outcomes for young people with hyperactive/inattentive traits and social communication difficulties between 9 and 16 years of age: a growth curve analysis.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this paper is to identify the trajectory of conduct and emotional problems for young people within the general population at four time points (between 9 years 7 months and 16 years 6 months), investigate their relationship with hyperactive/inattentive traits and explore the moderating effect of autistic social traits (ASTs). METHODS: Data from 9305 individuals involved in The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) study were included. Conduct and emotional problems and hyperactive/inattentive traits were measured by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. ASTs were assessed using the Social Communication Disorder Checklist. Individual trajectories for conduct and emotional problems were identified via growth curve modelling. Hyperactive/inattentive traits were included within the growth curve model as a time-varying covariate to determine their effect on these outcomes. Finally, participants were split into two groups (below and above clinical threshold ASTs Groups) and multi-group invariance testing was conducted on the data to identify the moderating effect of ASTs on the relationship between hyperactive/inattentive traits and outcomes (i.e. conduct and emotional problems). RESULTS: Hyperactive/inattentive traits were associated with higher rates of conduct and emotional problems for both boys and girls. The presence of ASTs moderated these relationships for boys, but not for girls, by increasing the risk of boys with hyperactive/inattentive traits developing greater conduct and emotional problems. CONCLUSIONS: These findings underscore the importance of identifying hyperactive/inattentive traits and ASTs in young people and addressing the increased risk of conduct and emotional problems. Research and clinical implications are explored.