Tactical behavior of high-level male marathon runners.

This study analyzes the strategy used by the best male runners who participated in one of the major city marathons (Frankfurt Marathon, 2008-2018), the all-time performances <2:04:00, the male world records achieved during the 21st century and the Nike Breaking2 Project and INEOS 1:59 Challenge (total = 235 races). The races of the best runners in the Frankfurt Marathon (top 10) were analyzed (n = 110 runners, range: 2:03:42-2:14:05 hours); the runners were divided into two groups according to the tactical used. The pace of Group A (stable pace) remained steady throughout the race, while in Group B (decrease in running speed toward the end of the race) a moderate, but significant drop in speed was detected (P ≤ .001), starting from halfway through the race and getting sharper from the 30th kilometer (30-35 km = 1.6%, P ≤ .001 - 35-40 km = 4.3%, P ≤ .001 - 40-42.195 km: 3.9%, P ≤ .001, total = ≈10%). In the races in which the world record is achieved, the running speed tends to be steady and relatively conservative during the first stretch of the race, increasing smoothly in the second half and achieving a significant increase in the last 2195 m of the race (P = .016, ES = 1.14). Among all the possible strategies, running at a steady pace throughout the race seems the most effective option, especially when priority is given to time rather than position (ie, world records and best all-time races).

Team triathlon effects on physiological, psychological, and immunological measures in women breast cancer survivors.

PURPOSE: Exercise after breast cancer diagnosis and treatment improves cancer-related outcomes, although the mechanisms involved are not clear. This study evaluated the impact of exercise on body composition, strength, endurance, quality of life (QOL), fatigue, and endocrine and inflammatory biomarkers in breast cancer survivors participating in a highly monitored, clinically supervised, moderate-intensity exercise program. The association of hormonal and inflammatory biomarkers with the observed physiological changes was assessed. METHODS: Female breast cancer survivors (BCS; n = 46) who engaged in a goal-oriented 14-week triathlon exercise training program were compared to an untrained control group of female BCS (n = 16). Psychosocial metrics, QOL, cancer-related fatigue, and exercise self-efficacy were evaluated via pre- and post-exercise intervention questionnaires. Serum estradiol and inflammatory biomarkers (C-reactive protein (CRP), sTNFR1a, estradiol, leptin, and adiponectin) were measured prior to the exercise training program start and after the completion of the goal triathlon. RESULTS: After exercise training, the exercise group had lower BMI and arm circumferences. Greater positive change was noted in the trained group for QOL, fatigue, and self-efficacy questionnaires. Functional endurance improved in the trained but not the control group. Knee and elbow strength were not different between the groups, except that knee flexion at 180 degrees∙sec-1 was higher in trained. The only significantly different biomarker was adiponectin, which decreased in the trained group. CONCLUSIONS: Group triathlon exercise training may be beneficial to BCS by significantly improving their psychosocial measures, functional endurance, and BMI.

Standardizing measurement in psychological studies: On why one second has different value in a sprint versus a marathon.

Here we highlight the importance of considering relative performance and the standardization of measurement in psychological research. In particular, we highlight three key analytic issues. The first is the fact that the popular method of calculating difference scores can be misleading because current approaches rely on absolute differences, neglecting what proportion of baseline performance this change reflects. We propose a simple solution of dividing absolute differences by mean levels of performance to calculate a relative measure, much like a Weber fraction from psychophysics. The second issue we raise is that there is an increasing need to compare the variability of effects across studies. The standard deviation score (SD) represents the average amount by which scores differ from their mean, but is sensitive to units, and to where a distribution lies along a measure even when the units are common. We propose two simple solutions to calculate a truly standardized SD (SSD), one for when the range of possible scores is known (e.g., scales, accuracy), and one for when it is unknown (e.g., reaction time). The third and final issue we address is the importance of considering relative performance in applying exclusion criteria to screen overly slow reaction time scores from distributions.

Effects of Marathon Running on Cognition and Retinal Vascularization: A Longitudinal Observational Study.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity has beneficial effects on both cardiovascular and neurocognitive parameters, and these two modalities are known to interact at rest. However, findings on their interaction during exercise are inconclusive. PURPOSE: Therefore, this longitudinal study aimed to investigate the effects of different forms of exercise (training period, marathon race, and recovery period) on both parameters and their interaction. METHODS: We included 100 marathon runners (MA) (mean ± SD age = 43.6 ± 10.0 yr, 80 males) and 46 age- and sex-matched sedentary controls (SC, for baseline comparison). Over the 6-month study period with six visits (12 and 2 wk before the marathon; immediately, 24 h, 72 h, and 12 wk after the marathon), we assessed cognitive parameters by evaluating the 1- to 3-back d prime, the d2 task, and the Trail Making Tests A (TMT A) and B (TMT B), and the retinal vessel parameters by assessing arteriolar-to-venular ratio (AVR), central retinal arteriolar equivalent (CRAE), and central retinal venular equivalent (CRVE). RESULTS: In the long-term analysis, 3-back d prime correlated positively with AVR (P = 0.024, B = 1.86, SE = 0.824) and negatively with CRVE (P = 0.05, B = -0.006, SE = 0.003), and TMT B correlated negatively with CRAE (P = 0.025, B = -0.155, SE = 0.069), even after correcting for age and systolic blood pressure as possible confounders. Acute effects were inconsistent with maximal cognitive improvement 24 h after the marathon. AVR was significantly smaller in SC compared with MA. CONCLUSION: Chronic exercise seems to prime the central nervous system for acute, intensive bouts of exercise. Our findings indicate a possible relationship between cognitive performance in high-demand tasks and retinal vasculature and support the idea of a neuroplastic effect of exercise.

Reduced mood variability is associated with enhanced performance during ultrarunnning.

Ultrarunning requires extraordinary endurance but the psychological factors involved in successful ultrarunning are not well understood. One widely held view is that fluctuations in mood play a pivotal role in performance during endurance events. However, this view is primarily based on comparisons of mood before and after marathons and shorter running events. Indeed, to date no study has explicitly examined mood changes during a competive ultramarathon. To address this issue, we measured mood fluctuations in athletes competing in the Hardmoors 60, a 100 km, single day continuous trail-ultramarathon, and examined how variation in mood related to performance, as measured by completion time. The key finding was that the variability of athletes Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) score was significantly and positively correlated with completion time, consistent with the idea that mood is an important factor in determining race performance. Athletes also experienced a significant increase in tension immediately prior to race onset. This effect was more pronounced in less experienced athletes and significantly attenuated by measurement stage 1 at 35.4 km, which suggests the effect was driven by the release of pre-competition anxiety. Depression, anger and TMD were significantly lower at the pre-race measurement compared to the baseline measurement taken the week before. Consistent with previous studies, there were also significant increases in fatigue, anger and TMD during the race. The data are interpreted in terms of the Psychobiological model of endurance and may have broader implications for the understanding of endurance performance in other domains.

Elite 100-km road ultramarathon runners: characteristics and musculoskeletal injuries.

BACKGROUND: Currently known data about ultramarathon medical issues has been collected from all combinations of ultramarathon race types (road, trail, etc.) and the population in those studies consists of mixed elite and recreational athletes. There are few studies concerning injuries related to musculoskeletal system injuries in ultramarathon runners. METHODS: The study was conducted on total of 77 elite ultramarathoners based on a questionnaire-based survey. We studied the elite male and female athletes who participated in the 30th IAU 100-km World Championships held in Croatia, in 2018. RESULTS: Ultramarathon runners have higher percentage of lower-leg injuries and rehabilitation of those injuries tend to last longer as ultramarathon runners show specific training habits with less days off and hold a permanent, full-time job and often with a higher academic degree. Furthermore, also the mean age is higher. CONCLUSIONS: Ultramarathoners have a higher percentage of lower-leg injuries than runners who do not run distances beyond a marathon. In addition, rehabilitation tends to last longer. This may well be correlated also to their specific training loads with fewer days off and training whilst holding a permanent full-time job. Often, they also hold a higher academic degree with years spent in the education system which might influence their mindsets on the medical issues they encounter. Also, being older may also have a bearing on injury occurrence and rehabilitation time.

The examination of mental toughness, sleep, mood and injury rates in an Arctic ultra-marathon.

There is scarcity of research examining the physiological and psychological effects of ultra-endurance racing on athletes in extreme conditions. The purpose of the current study was to identify common injury patterns and illness, profile mood states and sleep patterns and finally examine the relationships between mental toughness, sleep, mood and injury rates during a 120 mile, three-day Arctic ultra-marathon. Twelve participants (3 females, 9 males) with a mean age of 42 ± 5.35 yrs participated in the study. Mental toughness was measured using the MT18 questionnaire. Injuries were clinically assessed and recorded each day. Temperatures ranged from -20 to -6 degrees Celsius throughout the race. Sleep quantity and mood state were recorded using the BRUMS questionnaire. 10 out of the 12 participants experienced injuries; almost half of the participants had injuries that carried over a number of days. Mean sleep duration over the three days was 4.07 h, with an average of 0.78 injuries per day. Significant changes in mood were recorded across the three days, specifically a reduction in vigour (p = .029) and increase in fatigue (p = .014). Neither sleep quantity nor mental toughness was correlated with injury rate. Interestingly, sleep quantity was not related to changes in mood, as previously shown in ultra-marathons. Mental toughness had a moderate negative correlation (p < 0.01) with depression (-.623), reduced anger (-.616), confusion (-.558), increased vigour (.497) and tension (-.420) during the race. Success in this type of event involves significant psychological and physiological preparation to minimize the effects of sleep deprivation and avoidance of injuries.

Mental toughness and self-efficacy of elite ultra-marathon runners.

Minimal research has examined psychological processes underpinning ultra-marathon runners' performance. This study examined the relationships between mental toughness and self-efficacy with performance in an elite sample of ultra-marathon runners competing in the 2019 Hawaiian Ultra Running Team's Trail 100-mile endurance run (HURT100). The Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) and the Endurance Sport Self-Efficacy Scale (ESSES) were completed by 56 elite ultra-marathon runners in the HURT100 (38 males, 18 females; Mage = 38.86 years, SDage = 9.23). Findings revealed mental toughness and self-efficacy are highly related constructs (r(54) = 0.72, p < 0.001). Mental toughness and self-efficacy did not significantly relate to ultra-marathon performance (mental toughness and self-efficacy with Ultra-Trail World Tour (UTWT) rank F(2, 53) = 0.738, p = 0.483; mental toughness and self-efficacy with likelihood would finish the HURT100 χ2 = 0.56, p = 0.756; mental toughness and self-efficacy with HURT100 placing and time F(2, 53) = 1.738, p = 0.186 and F(2, 30) = 2.046, p = 0.147, respectively). However, participants had significantly and meaningfully higher mental toughness (M = 45.42, SD = 4.26, medium and large effect sizes) than athletes from other sports previously published. Our interpretation is that these results taken in conjunction, suggest a threshold of mental toughness that performers require to be of the standard needed to be able to prepare for and compete in elite ultra-marathon events such as the HURT100; once this mental toughness threshold is met, other factors are likely to be more influential in determining elite level ultra-marathon performance.

Validity of Recreational Marathon Runners' Self-Reported Anthropometric Data.

While studies on large samples of recreational runners have often relied on participants' self-reported height and body mass, the validity of these data have not been investigated for this population. Hence, this study sought to examine the validity of self-reported anthropometric measures among recreational marathon runners. Female (n = 32) and male (n = 135) recreational marathon runners were requested to estimate their body mass and height (and we calculated their self-reported body mass index [BMI]), after which we took actual measures of their body mass and height and calculated their actual BMI. Participants' self-reported values underestimated their actual body mass by 0.65 kg (p < .001, η2 = 0.222) and their actual BMI by 0.35 kg ⋅ m-2 (p < .001, η2 = 0.245). There was a significant Assessment Method × Sex Interaction for both body mass (p = .019, η2 = 0.033) and BMI (p = .017, η2 = 0.034), as women underestimated body mass values more than men. Participants overestimated their height by 0.44 cm (p < .001, η2 = 0.075), but the interaction of sex and assessment method for height was not statistically significant. Underestimates of body mass correlated with marathon racing speed (r = .24, p = .006) and body fat percentage (r = -.29, p = .001) in men, but not in women (p > .05). The disagreement between self-reported and measured anthropometric data in the present sample was lower than has been previously reported for the general population, suggesting that marathon runners may more accurately self-perceive and/or report their anthropometric characteristics. These findings are of practical value for health professionals and researchers (e.g., nutritionists and exercise physiologists) questionnaires to recreational marathon runners.

Changes in Psychiatric Emergency Room Visits Following the Boston Marathon Bombing.

OBJECTIVE: This study reviews patient encounters at a Boston-area community hospital Psychiatric Emergency Services (PES) following the Boston Marathon bombings, with the goal of describing the impact of terrorist attacks on PES encounters. METHODS: All PES encounters for 2 months preceding and 2 months following the bombing were identified in the electronic medical record. Demographics, current and past psychiatric problems, and trauma history were assessed for all records. Encounters seen post-bombing were compared with those before the bombing. RESULTS: Demographics, current and past psychiatric problems, and trauma history were not significantly different before versus after the bombing; 36 of 440 (8.2%) post-bombing encounters directly mentioned the bombings. New-onset posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms caused by the bombing occurred in only 4 encounters (0.9%). CONCLUSIONS: PES encounters after a terrorist event are likely to mirror those seen before a terrorist event, with only a minority of encounters presenting for new PTSD or acute stress disorder.