Formalin use in anatomical and histological science in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The introduction of formalin, a formaldehyde solution, as a disinfectant and fixative was an essential improvement in anatomical and histological science. This paper is an outline of the historical use of formalin based on primary source texts and historical studies. We describe how the discovery of acetaldehyde in the 18th century led to the development of formalin as the most common ingredient in embalming fluids in the 20th century and is still used today. Particularly important contributions to this process were made by Justus von Liebig, Alexander Butlerow and August Wilhelm Hofmann in the development of anatomical and histological preparation techniques, and by Ferdinand Blum, Ferdinand Julius Cohn, Frederick C. Kenyon and Victor Wehr in the practical uses of formaldehyde solutions in preservation and fixation of soft tissues. However, formalin is not without its drawbacks and as its toxicity became more understood, method to mitigate its effects were demanded. Eventually safer preparation techniques were developed, including Hagens' plastination and Thiel Embalming Method. These techniques may someday largely replace high-concentration formalin solutions but they both still require at least small quantities of formaldehyde to preserve tissues for study.

Human body preservation - old and new techniques.

This review deals with the art of (anatomical) embalming. The first part contains a brief historical review of the history of embalming, starting with ancient cultures such as the Egyptians and the lesser known Chinchorro culture, then going down the centuries and describing the anatomical techniques developed over the last two centuries. The second part deals in detail with the chemicals used for embalming purposes. The third part deals with several approaches to evaluating embalming methods, their suitability for biomechanical testing, antimicrobial properties, histological appearance, and usability. The fourth and final part analyze the European Biocidal Products Directive (98/8/EC) in the light of embalming.

Corneal endothelium--past, present, and future.

OBJECTIVE: To review the history of the growth in knowledge about the corneal endothelium. METHODS: Publications concerning the corneal endothelium were reviewed. RESULTS: Highpoints in the growth of knowledge about the corneal endothelium include discovery of barrier and pump functions, specular microscopy, reduction in surgical trauma, corneal preservation, and future advances. CONCLUSIONS: The highpoints in the history of the growth in knowledge about the corneal endothelium were elucidated.

CT checklist and scoring system for the assessment of soft tissue preservation in human mummies: application to catacomb mummies from Palermo, Sicily.

In this study we applied the recently developed "Checklist and Scoring System for the Assessment of Soft Tissue Preservation in Human Mummies" to catacomb mummies from Palermo, Sicily. Data from twenty-three full-body computed tomography (CT) examinations were available. These consisted of seventeen adults and six children dating from the late 18th to the late 19th centuries AD. Seventeen of these mummies were anthropogenically mummified, and six spontaneously. Based on the checklist and scoring system, soft tissue preservation varied between both mummification groups, among mummies with the same type of mummification, and within individual mummies at different anatomical locations. Checkpoints of the main category "A. Soft Tissues of Head and Musculoskeletal System" were clearly more frequent than checkpoints of the main category "B. Organs and Organ Systems". Among the anthropogenic mummies, intra-arterial filling achieved the highest preservation status of organs and organ systems. Despite the small sample size, the statistical evaluation showed significant differences between mummification types, with the highest soft tissue preservation found in anthropogenic mummies. Application of the "Checklist" allowed a standardized assessment and documentation of the soft tissue preservation of these mummies. The "Scoring System" facilitated a comparison among mummification groups and mummies by means of numeric values.

Synopsis of the use of frozen human semen since 1964: state of the art of human semen banking.

PIP: The history of frozen human semen is reviewed and the clinical devel opments which began in 1964 are given in greater detail. Artificial insemination has become widely accepted and thousands have been performed successfully. 40-45% survival of spermatozoa have been recorded after 10 years of storage. No evidence suggests that storage produces genetic changes. Conservative data show 564 children have been born from frozen semen using approved insemination procedures, 7 abnormal children were born, 50 spontaneous abortions were recorded, and 65 pregnancies had not yet resolved themselves. Periods of preservation ranged from 13 months (Japanese series) to 10 1/4 years (U.S.). Names and addresses of researchers maintaining semen banks are given. Application of the technology to infertility, as "insurance" for men undergoing vasectomy, and as a method for improving genetic characteristics are discussed. Commercial banks with regulated standards and a clarified policy of no guarantee of fertility were endorsed as essential to large-scale application of this technology.^ieng

The past twenty-five years in eye banking.

PURPOSE: This review of milestones and challenges in eye banking describes efforts made by dedicated eye bankers to ensure the quality and quantity of corneal tissue for corneal blind patients over the last 25 years. METHODS: This account is the result of the recollection of the author, discussions with eye bankers, and a review of the literature, public documents, and Eye Bank Association of America (EBAA) records. RESULTS: A measure of the success of eye banking is the fact that corneal transplant surgery is now scheduled as an elective procedure. Corneal tissue has also enjoyed a stellar safety record. This is due in part to the establishment of comprehensive medical standards by the EBAA, the accreditation of eye banks, and the training and certification of eye bank technicians. CONCLUSION: Advancements in eye banking over the last 25 years have improved the quality of life of several hundred thousand corneal blind persons in this country. More efforts must be made in the future to eliminate corneal blindness internationally.

Then and now: 25 years at the Ljubljana Burns Unit skin bank.

The skin bank of the burns unit in Ljubljana was established in 1973 and has since then been supplying homografts solely to the patients treated at this unit. It has evolved from being the burns unit skin bank to the national skin bank. At present all the burn victims from Slovenia by whom the allograft skin is needed in the course of treatment are admitted to this burns unit. The exclusion criteria for skin donors have now become much more strict than were 25 years ago. Cadaveric skin is now processed and preserved by glycerolisation or exceptionally used as fresh in comparison to 1973 when skin was stored frozen at -28 degrees C. At present donors in 90% of cases are multiorgan donors or deceased patients from the clinical centre part of which is the burns unit. Harvesting, processing and preservation of the skin have been performed by the burns unit and theatre staff since the foundation of this skin bank. The burns unit with its skin bank has been totally self sufficient in supplying cadaveric skin since 1973. The organisation of the skin bank is simple and the cost of the cadaveric skin from this skin bank is reduced to a minimum.

Domenico Cirillo's collections. A recently rediscovered 18th-century Neapolitan herbarium.

The herbarium of the 19th-century Neapolitan botanists Vincenzo and Francesco Briganti was acquired by Orazio Comes in 1892 for the Royal Higher School of Agriculture in Naples. Based on a study of the handwriting on their labels, Comes concluded that some of the dried specimens were the sole remains of the herbarium of Domenico Cirillo, the distinguished 18th-century Neapolitan botanist, entomologist and physician. The current arrangement of the specimens not uniform and it is clear that they underwent extensive handling and rearrangement Some of the exsiccata are preserved in two packets, fixed on sheets bearing a printed label that reads "Herbarium D. Cyrilli". In an additional label Gaetano Nicodemi's handwriting and not Cirillo's as stated by Comes was identified. Other specimens, many of them mounted in a different manner from those in the first group, are arranged in another three packets. Certain characteristics of the herbarium may be explained by the vicissitudes of its history, including a hasty salvage operation. A study of the collection was conducted, including an analysis of the handwritten labels and notes, leading to conclusions that shed light on the significance of the Cirillo collection within the historical and scientific context of 18th-century Naples.

The case described by Alois Alzheimer in 1911. Historical and conceptual perspectives based on the clinical record and neurohistological sections.

In 1906, Alzheimer presented the first case of the disease which was later named Alzheimer's disease by Kraeplin. While the publication on this case in 1907 is only a relatively short communication, Alzheimer published a very comprehensive paper in 1911 in which he discussed the concept of the disease in detail. This publication focusses on the report of a second patient suffering from Alzheimer's disease, the case of Johann F. The detection of neurohistopathological sections from this patient found among archives at the Institute of Neuropathology of the University of Munich enabled us to reinvestigate this case using modern methods. Neurohistopathologically, the case of Johann F. is "plaque-only" Alzheimer's disease. There is a controversy in the modern literature as to whether these "plaque-only" cases belong to the modern concept of Alzheimer's disease. A careful analysis of all pros and contras in the literature led to the conclusion that plaque-only cases are also an integrative part of the modern Alzheimer disease concept.