Albert Behnke: nitrogen narcosis.

As early as 1826, divers diving to great depths noted that descent often resulted in a phenomenon of intoxication and euphoria. In 1935, Albert Behnke discovered nitrogen as the cause of this clinical syndrome, a condition now known as nitrogen narcosis. Nitrogen narcosis consists of the development of euphoria, a false sense of security, and impaired judgment upon underwater descent using compressed air below 3-4 atmospheres (99 to 132 feet). At greater depths, symptoms can progress to loss of consciousness. The syndrome remains relatively unchanged in modern diving when compressed air is used. Behnke's use of non-nitrogen-containing gas mixtures subsequent to his discovery during the 1939 rescue of the wrecked submarine USS Squalus pioneered the use of non-nitrogen-containing gas mixtures, which are used by modern divers when working at great depth to avoid the effects of nitrogen narcosis.

[D.P.Zuikhin and his contribution to the establishment and development of the system of medical maintenance of nuclear submarines personnel].

A highly qualified physician, an outstanding leader, a scientist Dmitry Zuikhin (1924-1988) was directly involved into establishment of a system of medical support for submariners in the sea and on shore, he proved the necessity of forces and means for the medical service fleet. He was a pioneer in this challenging and new field of naval medicine. His energy, perseverance and determination helped to establish in the early 1960 a system of medical support for nuclear submarines personnel, which was subsequently implemented in all associations and connections of nuclear submarines of the Northern and Pacific fleets.

Underwater-works: voyages and visions of the submarine.

What did it mean to go under water in the early modern period? Diving bells had been employed since antiquity, but in the late seventeenth century spectacular recoveries from sunken Caribbean treasure ships prompted renewed innovation. Edmond Halley's diving engine of the 1690s tried to make the depths amenable to the human senses and practical manipulation. This striking attempt to create a dry world under water was part of a larger Baroque culture of the submarine that delighted in astonishing transformations between wet and dry.

Submarine atmospheres.

Nuclear submariners live and work in an atmosphere composed of approximately 80% naturally occurring nitrogen, 19% oxygen (manufactured aboard ship), and a complex mixture of inorganic and organic contaminants. The concentrations of contaminants exist as a balance between the rates of production from human and operational activities and the rate of removal by engineering systems. The biological effects of inorganic gases, particularly carbon dioxide, have been extensively studied. Investigators are now attempting to define the composition and concentration of volatile organic compounds that accumulate during 90-day submergences. Medical studies have not conclusively shown that crewmembers incur adverse health effects from continuous exposures to the sealed atmospheres of nuclear submarines.

A Bosphorus submarine passage and the reinvention of neurosurgery.

One of the major themes characterizing the emergence of modern neurosurgery has been the concept of technology transfer and the application of a broad spectrum of revolutionary elements of technology from both physical and biological science. These transference applications are now apparent in modern neurosurgery as it is practiced on all continents of the globe. More than 3 decades ago, these ideas that now have come to fruition were in states of formulation. This article describes and further documents one such fertile cauldron of ideas and practical realities--the United States Navy Nuclear Submarine Service and its role and affect on the life and professional career of an academic neurosurgeon who was active in areas of progress as modernity was established for the early 21st century.