A randomized trial of aerobic exercise for major depression: examining neural indicators of reward and cognitive control as predictors and treatment targets.

BACKGROUND: Aerobic exercise has demonstrated antidepressant efficacy among adults with major depression. There is a poor understanding of the neural mechanisms associated with these effects. Deficits in reward processing and cognitive control may be two candidate targets and predictors of treatment outcome to exercise in depression. METHODS: Sixty-six young adults aged 20.23 years (s.d. = 2.39) with major depression were randomized to 8 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (n = 35) or light stretching (n = 31). Depressive symptoms were assessed across the intervention to track symptom reduction. Reward processing [reward positivity (RewP)] and cognitive control [error-related negativity (ERN)] were assessed before and after the intervention using event-related brain potentials. RESULTS: Compared to stretching, aerobic exercise resulted in greater symptom reduction (gs = 0.66). Aerobic exercise had no impact on the RewP (gav = 0.08) or ERN (gav = 0.21). In the aerobic exercise group, individuals with a larger pre-treatment RewP [odds ratio (OR) = 1.45] and increased baseline depressive symptom severity (OR = 1.18) were more likely to respond to an aerobic exercise program. Pre-treatment ERN did not predict response (OR = 0.74). CONCLUSIONS: Aerobic exercise is effective in alleviating depressive symptoms in adults with major depression, particularly for those with increased depressive symptom severity and a larger RewP at baseline. Although aerobic exercise did not modify the RewP or ERN, there is preliminary support for the utility of the RewP in predicting who is most likely to respond to exercise as a treatment for depression.

Concussion Symptom Underreporting Among Incoming National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I College Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Accurate diagnosis of sport-related concussions relies heavily on truthful self-reporting of symptom severity. Previous studies have emphasized lack of knowledge as a factor in symptom nondisclosure. This study sought to examine concussion knowledge and the relationship of knowledge to reasons for symptom nondisclosure. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Data were collected during preparticipation athletic evaluations via electronic survey. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred fifty-six incoming National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I student-athletes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Survey items included previous concussion diagnosis, concussion fact and symptom knowledge, reasons and situational contexts for nondisclosure, and stakeholder attitudes. RESULTS: Participants, on average, had substantial concussion symptom and fact knowledge. Unexpectedly, participants with higher concussion fact knowledge endorsed more reasons that athletes may hide symptoms. Concussion symptom knowledge was unrelated to reasons for nondisclosure. Athletes believed that symptom reporting was less likely in high-stakes versus low-stakes situations and consistently identified their teammates as holding attitudes that support underreporting and athletic trainers as engaging in behaviors that support player safety. CONCLUSIONS: Greater concussion knowledge did not reduce the number of reasons that participants viewed as drivers for concussion nondisclosure. In other words, participants understood why athletes choose to hide symptoms even when they also understood the symptoms, risks, sequelae, and consequences of concussion (and potential harm of nondisclosure). Situational contexts and important stakeholder attitudes also appeared to importantly influence symptom disclosure decisions. A multifaceted approach that goes beyond current educational strategies to addresses situational, social, and athletic pressures may be needed to initiate a widespread cultural shift away from concussion nondisclosure.

Do sex differences in rumination explain sex differences in depression?

It is generally accepted that women tend to ruminate more than men do and these thought patterns are often associated with depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., ). Based on these findings, we considered whether the relationship between rumination and depression is stronger in women than in men and if so, whether this might explain the higher prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) in women and finally, whether the association can be disrupted through a mind/body intervention. Adult men and women, most of whom were clinically depressed, participated in an intervention known as MAP Training, which combines "mental" training with silent meditation and "physical" training with aerobic exercise (Shors et al., ). After eight weeks of training, both men and women reported significantly fewer symptoms of depression and fewer ruminative thoughts (Alderman et al., ). Statistical correlations between depressive symptoms and ruminative thoughts were strong and significant (rho > 0.50; p < 0.05) for both men and women before and after MAP Training. However, only in women did depressive symptoms relate to "reflective" ruminations, which involve analyses of past events, feelings, and behaviors. This is also the only relationship that dissipated after the intervention. In general, these analyses suggest that the strength of the relationship between depressive symptoms and rumination does not necessarily explain sex differences in depression; but because the relationship is strong, targeting rumination through intervention can reduce the incidence of MDD, which is more prevalent among women. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Microbes and mental health: A review.

There is a growing emphasis on the relationship between the microorganisms inhabiting the gut (gastrointestinal microbiota) and human health. The emergence of a microbiota-gut-brain axis to describe the complex networks and relationship between the gastrointestinal microbiota and host reflects the major influence this environment may have in brain health and disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Bidirectional communication between the microbiota and the CNS occurs through autonomic, neuroendocrine, enteric, and immune system pathways. Potential neurobiological mechanisms through which disruptions in this network may impact health and disease include hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis activation, and altered activity of neurotransmitter and immune systems. Perturbations of the gut microbial community have already been implicated in multiple host diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and inflammation, while recent evidence suggests a potential role of the microbiota-gut-brain axis in neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Here, we review the current literature related to the influence of the gut microbial community on central nervous system function, with a specific focus on anxiety and depressive symptoms. The role of stress and stress-mediated changes in autonomic, neuroendocrine, immune, and neurotransmitter systems are examined, followed by a discussion of the role of the microbiota in novel gastrointestinal-based treatment options for the prevention and treatment of brain-based disorders such as anxiety and depression.

Neurophysiological and behavioral correlates of cognitive control during low and moderate intensity exercise.

The aim of this study was to examine neurophysiological and behavioral correlates of cognitive control elicited by a modified flanker task while exercising at low and moderate intensities. A secondary aim was to examine cognitive control processes at several time points during an acute bout of exercise to determine whether cognition is selectively influenced by the duration of exercise. Twenty-seven healthy participants completed a modified version of the Eriksen flanker task while exercising on a cycle ergometer at 40% and 60% VO2 peak and during a no-exercise seated control across three separate days. During task performance, continuous EEG was collected to assess neurocognitive function using the N2 and P3 event-related brain potentials (ERPs). Neurocognitive performance was assessed at 5, 15, and 25min time points during steady-state exercise. Regardless of intensity, behavioral findings revealed impaired accuracy during both exercise conditions for the flanker task trials that require greater cognitive control. However, faster reaction times were found during moderate-intensity exercise. Neuroelectric measures revealed increased N2 and P3 amplitudes during both exercise conditions relative to rest. Together, these findings suggest divergent effects of exercise on behavioral performance measures accompanied by an upregulation of cognitive control during aerobic exercise. These impairments are discussed in terms of dual-task paradigms and the transient hypofrontality theory.

Dose-Response and Time Course Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Executive Function.

The purpose of this study was to examine possible dose-response and time course effects of an acute bout of resistance exercise on the core executive functions of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Twenty-eight participants (14 female; Mage = 20.5 ± 2.1 years) completed a control condition and resistance exercise bouts performed at 40%, 70%, and 100% of their individual 10-repetition maximum. An executive function test battery was administered at 15 min and 180 min postexercise to assess immediate and delayed effects of exercise on executive functioning. At 15 min postexercise, high-intensity exercise resulted in less interference and improved reaction time (RT) for the Stroop task, while at 180 min low- and moderate-intensity exercise resulted in improved performance on plus-minus and Simon tasks, respectively. These findings suggest a limited and task-specific influence of acute resistance exercise on executive function in healthy young adults.

Mental and Physical (MAP) Training: a neurogenesis-inspired intervention that enhances health in humans.

New neurons are generated in the hippocampus each day and their survival is greatly enhanced through effortful learning (Shors, 2014). The numbers of cells produced can be increased by physical exercise (van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 1999). These findings inspired us to develop a clinical intervention for humans known as Mental and Physical Training, or MAP Training. Each session consists of 30min of mental training with focused attention meditation (20min sitting and 10min walking). Meditation is an effortful training practice that involves learning about the transient nature of thoughts and thought patterns, and acquiring skills to recognize them without necessarily attaching meaning and/or emotions to them. The mental training component is followed by physical training with 30min of aerobic exercise performed at moderate intensity. During this component, participants learn choreographed dance routines while engaging in aerobic exercise. In a pilot "proof-of-concept" study, we provided supervised MAP Training (2 sessions per week for 8weeks) to a group of young mothers in the local community who were recently homeless, most of them having previously suffered from physical and sexual abuse, addiction, and depression. Preliminary data suggest that MAP Training improves dependent measures of aerobic fitness (as assessed by maximal rate of oxygen consumed) while decreasing symptoms of depression and anxiety. Similar changes were not observed in a group of recently homeless women who did not participate in MAP Training. It is not currently possible to determine whether new neurons in the human brain increase in number as a result of MAP Training. Rather these preliminary results of MAP Training illustrate how neuroscientific research can be translated into novel clinical interventions that benefit human health and wellness.

Acute high-intensity interval exercise improves food-related cognition in young adults with obesity: An ERP study.

Purpose Cognitive function, particularly food-related cognition, is critical for maintaining a healthy weight and preventing the acceleration of obesity. High-Intensity Interval Exercise (HIIE) is an increasingly popular form of exercise and has been shown to improve physical fitness and cognitive function. However, there is limited research on the effects and underlying mechanisms of HIIE on general and food-related cognition among adults with obesity. The aim of the current study was to examine the influence of a single bout of HIIE on food-related cognition among young adults with obesity. Methods Fifteen young men with obesity (BMI = 33.88 ± 4.22, age = 24.60 ± 5.29 years) were recruited. Participants took part in a HIIE condition consisting of 30 minutes of stationary cycle exercise (5-min warm-up, 20-min HIIE and 5-min cool down), and a control session consisting of a time and attention-matched period of sedentary rest in a counterbalanced order. Behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and event-related potential measures (P3 and the late positive potential, LPP) elicited during a food-related Flanker task were measured after the HIIE and control session. Results Shorter response times were observed following HIIE, regardless of congruency or picture type, with no change in accuracy. Increased P3 and LPP amplitudes were observed following HIIE relative to the control session. Conclusion The findings suggest a single bout of HIIE has a beneficial effect on general and food-related cognition among young adults with obesity, with increased recruitment of cognitive resources to support cognitive control. Future research is warranted to examine the dose-response relationship between acute bouts or longer participation in HIIE on food-related cognition in obesity.

Effects of Exercise Training on Executive Functioning in Adults with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

BACKGROUND: Exercise is a promising nonpharmacological intervention to improve executive function (EF). However, results from randomized trials and meta-analyses examining the effects of exercise on working memory in adults with depression are mixed, and the influence of exercise on EF, as well as the key moderators of the relationship, remain inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: The present systematic review with meta-analysis examined the influence of exercise interventions on EF in adults with depression, and the influence of key moderating variables. METHODS: Electronic searches were conducted using Embase, Cochrane Central, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang Database, and Weipu Database up to 25 June 2022, and updated on 16 January 2023. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of exercise training on EF in adults with depression were included. A three-level meta-analysis based on a random-effects model was applied in R. Study quality was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. RESULTS: A total of 14 RCTs that evaluated 1201 adults with depression were included. The results indicated that exercise significantly improved global EF [g = 0.180; 95% confidence intervals (CI) = 0.038, 0.323], and the subdomains of working memory (g = 0.182; 95% CI = 0.015, 0.350), cognitive flexibility (g = 0.222; 95% CI = 0.048, 0.395), and reasoning/planning (g = 0.889; 95% CI = 0.571, 1.206). In subgroup analyses, significant improvements in EF were only observed for aerobic exercise (g = 0.203; 95% CI = 0.023, 0.382), moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise (g = 0.200; 95% CI = 0.022, 0.379), exercise performed three or more times per week (g = 0.207; 95% CI = 0.026, 0.388), in sessions ≤ 60 min (g = 0.173; 95% CI = 0.003, 0.343), and in program durations lasting at least 13 weeks (g = 0. 248; 95% CI = 0.034, 0.462). CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis demonstrates the benefits of exercise training for improving EF and the subdomains of working memory, cognitive flexibility, and reasoning/planning in adults with depression. Future randomized clinical trials are warranted to determine the therapeutic effects of exercise training on EF and cognitive symptoms in depressed patients.

Look into my eyes: What can eye-based measures tell us about the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance?

BACKGROUND: There is a growing interest to understand the neurobiological mechanisms that drive the positive associations of physical activity and fitness with measures of cognitive performance. To better understand those mechanisms, several studies have employed eye-based measures (e.g., eye movement measures such as saccades, pupillary measures such as pupil dilation, and vascular measures such as retinal vessel diameter) deemed to be proxies for specific neurobiological mechanisms. However, there is currently no systematic review providing a comprehensive overview of these studies in the field of exercise-cognition science. Thus, this review aimed to address that gap in the literature. METHODS: To identify eligible studies, we searched 5 electronic databases on October 23, 2022. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using a modified version of the Tool for the assEssment of Study qualiTy and reporting in EXercise (TESTEX scale, for interventional studies) and the critical appraisal tool from the Joanna Briggs Institute (for cross-sectional studies). RESULTS: Our systematic review (n = 35 studies) offers the following main findings: (a) there is insufficient evidence available to draw solid conclusions concerning gaze-fixation-based measures; (b) the evidence that pupillometric measures, which are a proxy for the noradrenergic system, can explain the positive effect of acute exercise and cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive performance is mixed; (c) physical training- or fitness-related changes of the cerebrovascular system (operationalized via changes in retinal vasculature) are, in general, positively associated with cognitive performance improvements; (d) acute and chronic physical exercises show a positive effect based on an oculomotor-based measure of executive function (operationalized via antisaccade tasks); and (e) the positive association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive performance is partly mediated by the dopaminergic system (operationalized via spontaneous eye-blink rate). CONCLUSION: This systematic review offers confirmation that eye-based measures can provide valuable insight into the neurobiological mechanisms that may drive positive associations between physical activity and fitness and measures of cognitive performance. However, due to the limited number of studies utilizing specific methods for obtaining eye-based measures (e.g., pupillometry, retinal vessel analysis, spontaneous eye blink rate) or investigating a possible dose-response relationship, further research is necessary before more nuanced conclusions can be drawn. Given that eye-based measures are economical and non-invasive, we hope this review will foster the future application of eye-based measures in the field of exercise-cognition science.

Physical education's contribution to daily physical activity among middle school youth.

Little is known about the exact contribution of physical education (PE) to total daily physical activity (PA) among children and adolescents. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the PA of middle school students during PE and non-PE days and determine if children would compensate for a lack of PE by increasing their PA later in the day. Two hundred seventy nine students (159 boys, 120 girls) wore pedometers (Walk4Life LS252, Plainfield, IL) during 5 school days, with at least two of the days including scheduled PE. The least (~1,575; 31% increase), moderately (~2,650; 20% increase), and most highly active students (~5,950; 34% increase) accumulated significantly more daily step counts on days when they participated in PE. Nearly three times the percent of boys (37%) and more than two times the percent of girls (61%) met the recommended steps/day guidelines on days when PE was offered. Rather than a compensatory effect, the most highly active students were more active on school days with PE, even after accounting for the steps they accrued in PE. The evidence is consistent with other studies that have found that PE contributes meaningfully to daily PA, that youth do not compensate when they are not provided opportunities to be physically active in school-based programs, and some youth are stimulated to be more active when they participate in school-based PA programs.

Brain insulin resistance and cognitive function: influence of exercise.

Exercise has systemic health benefits in people, in part, through improving whole body insulin sensitivity. The brain is an insulin-sensitive organ that is often underdiscussed relative to skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. Although brain insulin action may have only subtle impacts on peripheral regulation of systemic glucose homeostasis, it is important for weight regulation as well as mental health. In fact, brain insulin signaling is also involved in processes that support healthy cognition. Furthermore, brain insulin resistance has been associated with age-related declines in memory and executive function as well as Alzheimer's disease pathology. Herein, we provide an overview of brain insulin sensitivity in relation to cognitive function from animal and human studies, with particular emphasis placed on the impact exercise may have on brain insulin sensitivity. Mechanisms discussed include mitochondrial function, brain growth factors, and neurogenesis, which collectively help combat obesity-related metabolic disease and Alzheimer's dementia.

Acute High-Intensity Interval Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control Among Young Adult Males With Obesity.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of acute high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) on neural and behavioral measures of inhibitory control in young male adults with obesity. DESIGN: The present study employed a within-subjects design. METHODS: Sixteen male adults with obesity [body mass index (BMI) > 28 kg/m2] were recruited. Reaction time and response accuracy of the Flanker task as well as P3 and late positive potential (LPP) components of the event-related potential (ERP) were measured following HIIE and a sedentary control, in counterbalanced order. The HIIE session consisted of 30 min of stationary cycle exercise (5-min warm-up, 20-min HIIE, and a 5-min cool-down), whereas the control condition consisted of a time and attention-matched sedentary resting session. RESULTS: Faster response times were observed following HIIE regardless of Flanker task condition. Faster and more accurate responses were also observed for congruent relative to incongruent conditions across both sessions. Relative to the neuroelectric data, acute HIIE resulted in increased LPP amplitude but did not affect P3 amplitude. CONCLUSION: Collectively, a single bout of HIIE has a general beneficial effect on basic information processing and inhibitory control among young adult males with obesity. Acute HIIE was found to impact LPP amplitude, but not the P3, which may suggest a modulation in the ability to successfully maintain attention and filter irrelevant information to achieve successful cognitive inhibition. Future research is warranted to extend these findings to a larger sample size that includes both genders, other cognitive functions, and a comparison of different modes of exercise.

P3b as an electroencephalographic index of automatic associations of exercise-related images.

OBJECTIVE: Interest in automatic associations of exercise and physical activity as potential contributors to behavior is rising. However, the measurement of these associations presents a challenge, since the reliability and validity of behavioral tests (despite their widespread usage) is unsatisfactory by most accounts. As a possible alternative, an electroencephalographic (EEG) index (i.e., P3b amplitude) was examined in the present study. DESIGN: We used a mixed-factor design, with one group of insufficiently and one group of sufficiently physically active participants being compared across different experimental conditions. METHODS: Thirty-seven insufficiently and thirty-six sufficiently active participants viewed exercise-related images presented within series of negative, neutral, or positive images and rated all images as negative (unpleasant) or positive (pleasant) while EEG recordings were obtained. The amplitude of the P3b component of the EEG-derived event-related potential, time-locked to the onset of exercise images in each context (series), was extracted as the dependent variable. RESULTS: Insufficiently active participants rated the exercise-related images as neutral-to-positive, whereas sufficiently active participants rated the images as positive. However, all participants exhibited the smallest P3b amplitude when the images were presented in the neutral context, suggesting that the images were registering as neutral. CONCLUSION: Exercise-related images may evoke neutral automatic associations, but these associations may differ from how individuals reflectively rate the same images. P3b amplitude may be useful in detecting such discrepancies and potentially a promising (evidence-based) option for assessing automatic associations of exercise stimuli.

Acute aerobic exercise increases respiratory sinus arrythmia reactivity and recovery to a sad film among individuals at risk for depression.

Cardiac vagal control (CVC), as indexed by abnormalities in resting, reactivity, and recovery levels of respiratory sinus arrythmia (RSA), has been proposed as an index of impaired self-regulatory capacity in depression. Aerobic exercise has been shown to improve positive and negative affective responses and influence autonomic function; however, it is unknown whether exercise impacts RSA reactivity and subsequent recovery to emotional challenges among individuals at risk for depression. The present study aimed to determine the effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on RSA reactivity and recovery to a sad film. Using a within-subjects design, 47 individuals with variable symptoms of depression completed a 30-min session of exercise and a sedentary control condition on separate days prior to viewing a sad film. On the control day, individuals with elevated depressive symptom severity displayed less vagal withdrawal to the sad film and exhibited impaired post-film RSA recovery. Following exercise, individuals with elevated depressive symptom severity demonstrated a higher degree of vagal withdrawal to the sad film and subsequent post-film recovery that matched individuals with lower depressive symptom severity. These findings suggest that a single session aerobic exercise may be an effective approach to increase emotional and self-regulatory capacity among individual at risk for, or currently experiencing, depression.

Does aerobic fitness moderate age-related cognitive slowing? Evidence from the P3 and lateralized readiness potentials.

Reaction time (RT) slowing occurs among older adults, although it remains unclear whether general or specific aspects of information-processing are implicated in this phenomenon. Aerobic fitness moderates age-related RT slowing, although it is unknown whether fitness benefits earlier versus later stages of information-processing. To test these hypotheses, 40 younger and 43 older adults classified by level of aerobic fitness were tested using a visual oddball paradigm to assess behavioral measures of RT and accuracy along with the P3 wave and lateralized readiness potential (LRP) to index stimulus categorization and response selection and execution processes, respectively. Older adults had slower RT, decreased P3 amplitude, and increased P3 latency and LRP amplitude, suggestive of generalized age-related cognitive slowing decline. While aerobic fitness was significantly correlated with median RT and P3 latency across the entire sample, these correlations did not persist when adjusting for age. Subsequent moderation analysis also failed to support an influence of aerobic fitness on any of the cognitive outcomes. These findings indicate that, at least in simple discrimination tasks, aging is associated with slower processing that occurs proximal to stimulus categorization and extends to motor response and execution processing. These age-related deficits, however, are not moderated by aerobic fitness.

Lower resting cardiac autonomic balance in young adults with current major depression.

Research on cardiac autonomic function in major depressive disorder (MDD) has predominantly examined cardiac vagal control and adopted a model of reciprocal autonomic balance. A proposed bivariate autonomic continuum uses cardiac autonomic balance (CAB) and cardiac autonomic regulation (CAR) models, derived from normalized values of respiratory sinus arrhythmia and pre-ejection period, to more adequately index patterns of autonomic control. The purpose of this study was to assess resting levels of CAB and CAR among young adults with and without a current diagnosis of major depression. One hundred forty-two young adults (n = 65 MDD, n = 77 healthy controls; 20.8 ± 2.6 years) completed a structured diagnostic interview, cardiovascular assessment, and a maximal aerobic fitness test. The findings revealed that CAB, but not CAR, significantly predicted current MDD status (OR = 0.70, 95% CI [0.53, 0.93]), an effect that remained after controlling for aerobic fitness and body mass index. Although CAB was found to be a significant predictor of current MDD status among a sample of young adults, there remained substantial variation in autonomic control that was not captured by the traditional model of reciprocal autonomic balance.

Associations of depression severity with heart rate and heart rate variability in young adults across normative and clinical populations.

Limitations of current depression treatments may arise from a lack of knowledge about unique psychophysiological processes that contribute to depression across the full range of presentations. This study examined how individual variations in heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) are related to depressive symptoms across normative and clinical populations in 152 young adults (aged 18-35 years). Moderating effects of sex and antidepressant medication status were considered. Electrocardiogram data were collected during "vanilla" baseline and in response to positive and negative emotional cues. Linear regressions and repeated-measures mixed models were used to assess the relationships between Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) scores, sex, antidepressant use, and cardiovascular outcomes. Baseline models yielded significant main effects of BDI-II and sex on HR and significant interactions between antidepressant medication status and BDI-II on HRV outcomes. The main effects of BDI-II and sex on HR were no longer significant after controlling for cardiorespiratory fitness. Participants who denied current antidepressant use (n = 137) exhibited a negative association and participants who endorsed current antidepressant (n = 15) use exhibited a positive association between BDI-II scores and HRV. Emotional reactivity models were largely non-significant with the exception of a significant main effect of antidepressant medication status on high-frequency HRV reactivity. Results indicated antidepressant medication use may moderate the relationship between depression severity and cardiovascular functioning, but this requires replication given the modest proportion of medicated individuals in this study. Overall, findings suggest cardiovascular processes and cardiorespiratory fitness are linked to depression symptomatology and may be important to consider in depression treatment.

A history of sport-related concussion is associated with sustained deficits in conflict and error monitoring.

Previous research has demonstrated long-term deficits in neurocognitive function in individuals with a history of sport-related concussion. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a history of concussion and behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) indices of pre- and post-response conflict and error monitoring. A secondary aim was to determine whether years of high risk sport participation were related to impairments in these cognitive control processes. Forty-seven former athletes (age = 20.8 ±â€¯2.2 years) with (n = 25; 5 females) and without (n = 22; 9 females) a history of concussion completed a modified flanker task while behavioral performance, N2, error-related negativity (ERN), and error positivity (Pe) components were assessed. An increase in post-response error-related (ERN) brain activity and a nonsignificant trend of increased pre-response conflict (N2) was observed in individuals with a prior sport-related concussion relative to non-concussed controls; however, no behavioral performance differences were found between groups. No significant associations were found between ERP and behavioral measures and the number of years of high-risk sport participation; however, time since last head injury was associated with shorter N2 latency. Together, these findings suggest a persistent impairment in cognitive control and error-related processing in individuals with a history of concussion. These findings are interpreted within the framework of the compensatory error-monitoring hypothesis.

Do sport-related concussions result in long-term cognitive impairment? A review of event-related potential research.

Sport-related concussions have become a major public health concern although the long-term effects on cognitive function remain largely unknown. Event-related potentials (ERPs) are ideal for studying the long-term impact of sport-related concussions, as they have excellent temporal precision and provide insight that cannot be obtained from behavioral or neuropsychological measures alone. We reviewed all available published studies that have used stimulus or response-locked ERPs to document cognitive control processes in individuals with a history of concussion. Collectively, cross-sectional evidence suggests consistent reductions in P3 amplitude in previously concussed individuals, as well as a possible impairment in cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) and error monitoring processes (ERN). The persistent neurophysiological changes found may be related to the number of previous concussions sustained and the time since injury. Future studies incorporating prospective research designs are warranted before definitive statements can be offered regarding the long-term impact of sport-related concussions on cognitive control.