Determination of pharmacological inhibition of ALDH2 by ethanol clearance in mice.

OBJECTIVES: Retinoic acid plays diverse physiological and pathophysiological roles in reproduction, immune function, energy metabolism and carcinogenesis. Because of the potential benefits of inhibiting retinoic acid biosynthesis in certain disease states, efforts are underway to develop inhibitors of retinoic acid biosynthesis via inhibition of the aldehyde dehydrogenase-1 A (ALDH1A) family of enzymes. However, many potential ALDH1A inhibitors also inhibit the related ALDH2 enzyme that plays a role in the metabolism of ethanol. Accurate in vitro assessment of ALDH2 inhibition is problematic, and to date, there are no published in vivo assays to determine inhibition of ALDH2 by candidate ALDH1A inhibitors. STUDY DESIGN: To address this, we developed a novel gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry ethanol clearance assay in mice using orally administered ethanol and serial measurement of ethanol over time. We then used this assay to determine pharmacological inhibition of ALDH2 by candidate ALDH1A inhibitors. RESULTS: Ethanol clearance in untreated male mice occurs within sixty minutes. Male mice treated with WIN 18,446, a known ALDH1A inhibitor that also inhibits ALDH2, demonstrated significant inhibition of ethanol clearance compared to untreated controls. Novel pyrazole and piperazine ALDH1A inhibitors were then tested with the piperazine inhibitor demonstrating ALDH2 inhibition via impaired ethanol clearance while the pyrazole inhibitor did not interfere with ethanol metabolism, suggesting a lack of ALDH2 inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Inhibition of ethanol clearance is a useful in vivo method of inferring pharmacologic inhibition of hepatic ALDH2. This assay may be useful in the development of novel ALDH1A specific inhibitors for a variety of therapeutic indications.

Relevance of Human Aldoketoreductases and Microbial ß-Glucuronidases in Testosterone Disposition.

Testosterone exhibits high variability in pharmacokinetics and glucuronidation after oral administration. Although testosterone metabolism has been studied for decades, the impact of UGT2B17 gene deletion and the role of gut bacterial ß-glucuronidases on its disposition are not well characterized. We first performed an exploratory study to investigate the effect of UGT2B17 gene deletion on the global liver proteome, which revealed significant increases in proteins from multiple biological pathways. The most upregulated liver proteins were aldoketoreductases [AKR1D1, AKR1C4, AKR7A3, AKR1A1, and 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7)] and alcohol or aldehyde dehydrogenases (ADH6, ADH1C, ALDH1A1, ALDH9A1, and ALDH5A). In vitro assays revealed that AKR1D1 and AKR1C4 inactivate testosterone to 5ß-dihydrotestosterone (5ß-DHT) and 3α,5ß-tetrahydrotestosterone (3α,5ß-THT), respectively. These metabolites also appeared in human hepatocytes treated with testosterone and in human serum collected after oral testosterone dosing in men. Our data also suggest that 5ß-DHT and 3α, 5ß-THT are then eliminated through glucuronidation by UGT2B7 in UGT2B17 deletion individuals. Second, we evaluated the potential reactivation of testosterone glucuronide (TG) after its secretion into the intestinal lumen. Incubation of TG with purified gut microbial ß-glucuronidase enzymes and with human fecal extracts confirmed testosterone reactivation into testosterone by gut bacterial enzymes. Both testosterone metabolic switching and variable testosterone activation by gut microbial enzymes are important mechanisms for explaining the disposition of orally administered testosterone and appear essential to unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying UGT2B17-associated pathophysiological conditions. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study investigated the association of UGT2B17 gene deletion and gut bacterial ß-glucuronidases with testosterone disposition in vitro. The experiments revealed upregulation of AKR1D1 and AKR1C4 in UGT2B17 deletion individuals, and the role of these enzymes to inactivate testosterone to 5ß-dihydrotestosterone and 3α, 5ß-tetrahydrotestosterone, respectively. Key gut bacterial species responsible for testosterone glucuronide activation were identified. These data are important for explaining the disposition of exogenously administered testosterone and appear essential to unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying UGT2B17-associated pathophysiological conditions.

The world needs better male contraceptives: What is taking so long?

Forty percent of US pregnancies are unintended despite currently available contraceptives. A substantial number of men use the currently available methods of male contraception, condoms and vasectomy, and a large majority would be interested in novel forms of male contraception if available. Research into male contraception has been ongoing for more than 50 years, with hormonal contraceptives nearing clinical utility and non-hormonal methods hopefully becoming available, albeit with a longer time frame. However, uncertainly regarding benchmarks for the efficacy and safety of male contraception continue to be an issue with development and regulatory approval. In addition, pharmaceutical industry support is minimal with the NIH and Foundations being the main research funders. Given the continuing high rates of unintended pregnancy, many of which are now occurring in areas with extremely restricted access to legal abortion, additional focus and investment in male contraceptive development is imperative.

Isotretinoin and its Metabolites Alter mRNA of Multiple Enzyme and Transporter Genes In Vitro, but Downregulation of Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide Does Not Translate to the Clinic.

Isotretinoin [13-cis-retinoic acid (13cisRA)] is widely used for the treatment of neuroblastoma and acne. It acts via regulating gene transcription through binding to retinoic acid receptors. Yet, the potential for isotretinoin to cause transcriptionally mediated drug-drug interactions (DDIs) has not been fully explored. We hypothesized that isotretinoin and its active metabolites all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA) and 4-oxo-13cisRA would alter the transcription of enzymes and transporters in the human liver via binding to nuclear receptors. The goal of this study was to define the DDI potential of isotretinoin and its metabolites resulting from transcriptional regulation of cytochrome P450 and transporter mRNAs. In human hepatocytes (n = 3), 13cisRA, atRA, and 4-oxo-13cisRA decreased OATP1B1, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6 mRNA and increased CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 mRNA in a concentration-dependent manner. The EC50 values for OATP1B1 mRNA downregulation ranged from 2 to 110 nM, with maximum effect (Emax ) ranging from 0.17- to 0.54-fold. Based on the EC50 and Emax values and the known circulating concentrations of 13cisRA and its metabolites after isotretinoin dosing, a 55% decrease in OATP1B1 activity was predicted in vivo. In vivo DDI potential was evaluated clinically in participants dosed with isotretinoin for up to 32 weeks using coproporphyrin-I (CP-I) as an OATP1B1 biomarker. CP-I steady-state serum concentrations were unaltered following 2, 8, or 16 weeks of isotretinoin treatment. These data show that isotretinoin and its metabolites alter transcription of multiple enzymes and transporters in vitro, but translation of these changes to in vivo drug-drug interactions requires clinical evaluation for each enzyme. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Isotretinoin and its metabolites alter the mRNA expression of multiple cytochrome P450s (CYPs) and transporters in human hepatocytes, suggesting that isotretinoin may cause clinically significant drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Despite the observed changes in organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1) mRNA in human hepatocytes, no clinical DDI was observed when measuring a biomarker, coproporphyrin-I. Further work is needed to determine whether these findings can be extrapolated to a lack of a DDI with CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C9 substrates.

Dimethandrolone, a Potential Male Contraceptive Pill, is Primarily Metabolized by the Highly Polymorphic UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 2B17 Enzyme in Human Intestine and Liver.

Dimethandrolone undecanoate (DMAU), an oral investigational male hormonal contraceptive, is a prodrug that is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, dimethandrolone (DMA). Poor and variable oral bioavailability of DMA after DMAU dosing is a critical challenge to develop it as an oral drug. The objective of our study was to elucidate the mechanisms of variable pharmacokinetics of DMA. We first identified DMA metabolites formed in vitro and in vivo in human hepatocyte incubation and serum samples following oral DMAU administration in men, respectively. The metabolite identification study revealed two metabolites, DMA-glucuronide (DMA-G; major) and the androstenedione analog of DMA (minor), in the hepatocyte incubations. After oral DMAU administration, only DMA-G was detected in serum, which was >100-fold compared with DMA levels, supporting glucuronidation as the major elimination mechanism for DMA. Next, 13 clinically relevant UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes were tested for their involvement in DMA-G formation, which revealed a major role of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B17 (UGT2B17) isoform with a smaller contribution of UGT1A9 in DMA-G formation. These data were confirmed by dramatically higher DMA glucuronidation rates (>200- and sevenfold) in the high versus the null UGT2B17-expressing human intestinal and liver microsomes, respectively. Since human UGT2B17 is a highly variable enzyme with a 20%-80% gene deletion frequency, the in vitro data suggest a major role of UGT2B17 polymorphism on the first-pass metabolism of DMA. Further, considering DMA is a selective and sensitive UGT2B17 substrate, it could be used as a clinical probe of UGT2B17 activity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Dimethandrolone (DMA) is an active metabolite of dimethandrolone undecanoate (DMAU), an investigational male hormonal contraceptive. Previous studies have indicated poor and inconsistent bioavailability of DMAU following oral administration. This study found that UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B17-mediated high intestinal first-pass metabolism is the key mechanism of variable DMA bioavailability.

Two-Year Analysis of a New Oral Testosterone Undecanoate (TU) Formulation in Hypogonadal Men: Efficacy, Impact on Psychosexual Function, and Safety.

BACKGROUND: Long-term data evaluating the efficacy and safety of oral testosterone undecanoate (oral TU; JATENZO) in adult hypogonadal men provides important information for healthcare professionals who prescribe testosterone replacement therapy (TRT). AIM: To determine the efficacy and safety of long-term oral TU therapy, including its impact on total testosterone (T) levels and psychosexual functioning. METHODS: Hypogonadal men, between 18 and 75 years old, (mean age 56.2; 87.2% white) who completed a 12-month, open-label, multicenter, randomized, active-controlled trial were given the opportunity to enroll in a 12-month extension study. Among the 129 eligible TU-treated subjects, 86 chose this option, and 69 completed 24 months of uninterrupted oral TU therapy. OUTCOMES: The efficacy of oral TU was documented by measuring total serum T concentrations; sexual function was measured using the Psychosexual Daily Questionnaire (PDQ). For safety, liver function tests, cardiovascular endpoints, and prostate health were measured. RESULTS: Over 2 years, total serum T concentrations for patients treated with oral TU were in the eugonadal range (300-1,000 ng/dL [10-35 nmol/L]; mean ± SD: 617 ± 427 ng/dL [21 ± 15 nmol/L]) and increased significantly from baseline (P < .0001). For sexual function, mean score changes versus baseline for all PDQ domains at all time points were significantly improved (P < .0011 for all). For the sexual activity and sexual desire components, patient scores were consistently greater than validated thresholds for clinically meaningful change. Typical T-induced safety changes were observed, including a 3-6 mm Hg increase in systolic blood pressure (P < .05); a slight increase in hematocrit (P < .0001) that stayed <48% throughout the study; no clinically significant changes in prostate-specific antigen levels; and decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (-9.8 ± 0.9 mg/dL from baseline; P < .0001). There were no clinically significant changes from baseline in liver function tests. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Over 2 years of treatment, this novel oral TU formulation maintained total T concentrations in mideugonadal ranges, with improvements in sexual function and no clinically significant changes in liver function or other safety concerns previously associated with oral TRT. STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS: These are the first long-term data to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a novel formulation of oral TU; the comparative long-term safety of oral TU would be strengthened by confirmatory studies versus other TRT formulations. CONCLUSION: Oral TU offers a safe and effective long-term treatment option for men with hypogonadism. Honig S, Gittelman M, Kaminetsky J, et al. Two-Year Analysis of a New Oral Testosterone Undecanoate (TU) Formulation in Hypogonadal Men: Efficacy, Impact on Psychosexual Function, and Safety. J Sex Med 2022;19:1750-1758.

Investigation of an ALDH1A1-specific inhibitor for suppression of weight gain in a diet-induced mouse model of obesity.

BACKGROUND: Retinoic acid (RA) controls diverse physiological functions including weight regulation and energy metabolism. It has been reported that mice lacking ALDH1A1, one of the aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH) that synthesize RA, are healthy and resistant to weight gain, raising the possibility that inhibiting this enzyme might treat obesity. We previously demonstrated that treatment with a pan-ALDH1A enzyme inhibitor, WIN18446, suppressed weight gain in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD), but caused increased hepatic lipidosis and reversible male infertility. METHODS: A series of piperazine compounds that inhibited ALDH1A1 were identified and their inhibitory activity was characterized in vitro using purified recombinant enzymes and cell-based assay systems. One potent compound, FSI-TN42 (N42) was examined for its oral bioavailability and pharmacodynamic effects. In addition, its effect on weight gain was investigated by daily oral administration to C57BL/6 male mice receiving a HFD, and compared with mice receiving WIN18446 or vehicle alone (n = 6/group, 200 mg compound/kg body weight) for 5 weeks. Body weights were measured weekly, and a glucose tolerance test was performed after 4 weeks of treatment. Tissues were collected to determine changes in adipose weight, hepatic lipidosis, retinoid metabolism, and expression of genes associated with RA and lipid metabolism. RESULTS: N42 irreversibly binds and inhibits ALDH1A1 in vitro with a low nM IC50 and 800-fold specificity for ALDH1A1 compared to ALDH1A2. Daily oral administration of N42 significantly suppressed weight gain (P < 0.05) and reduced visceral adiposity (p < 0.05) in mice fed a HFD without the hepatic lipidosis observed with WIN18446 treatment. CONCLUSIONS: We developed a potent and specific inhibitor of ALDH1A1 that suppressed weight gain in mice fed a HFD. These findings demonstrate that inhibition of ALDH1A1 is a feasible target for drug development to treat and/or prevent obesity.

Longitudinal changes in plasma sex hormone concentrations correlate with changes in CT-measured regional adiposity among Japanese American men over 10 years.

OBJECTIVE: Ageing in male adults is typically accompanied by adiposity accumulation and changes in circulating sex hormone concentrations. We hypothesized that an ageing-associated increase in oestrogens and decrease in androgens would correlate with an increase in adiposity. DESIGN: 10-year prospective, observational study. STUDY SUBJECTS: A total of 190, community-dwelling men in the Japanese American Community Diabetes Study. MEASUREMENTS: At 0 and 10 years, CT scanning quantified intra-abdominal fat (IAF) and subcutaneous fat (SCF) areas while plasma concentrations of oestradiol, oestrone, testosterone and dihydrotestosterone were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem-mass spectrometry at each time point. Multivariate linear regression analyses assessed correlations between 10-year changes in hormone concentrations and IAF or SCF, adjusting for age and baseline fat depot area. RESULTS: Participants were middle-aged [median 54.8 years, interquartile range (IQR) 39.9-62.8] men and mostly overweight by Asian criterion (median BMI 24.9, IQR 23.3-27.1) and with few exceptions had normal sex-steroid concentrations. Median oestradiol and dihydrotestosterone did not change significantly between 0 and 10 years (P = .084 and P = .596, respectively) while median oestrone increased (P < .001) and testosterone decreased (P < .001). Median IAF and SCF increased from 0 to 10 years (both P < .001). In multivariate analyses, change in oestrone positively correlated (P = .019) while change in testosterone (P = .003) and dihydrotestosterone (P = .014) negatively correlated with change in IAF. Plasma oestradiol and oestrone positively correlated with change in SCF (P = .041 and P = .030, respectively) while testosterone (P = .031) negatively correlated in multivariate analysis. CONCLUSION: Among 190 community-dwelling, Japanese American men, increases in IAF were associated with decreases in plasma androgens and increases in plasma oestrone, but not oestradiol, at 10 years. Further research is necessary to understand whether changing hormone concentrations are causally related to changes in regional adiposity or whether the reverse is true.

Hepatic Abundance and Activity of Androgen- and Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme UGT2B17 Are Associated with Genotype, Age, and Sex.

The major objective of this study was to investigate the association of genetic and nongenetic factors with variability in protein abundance and in vitro activity of the androgen-metabolizing enzyme UGT2B17 in human liver microsomes (n = 455). UGT2B17 abundance was quantified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry proteomics, and enzyme activity was determined by using testosterone and dihydrotestosterone as in vitro probe substrates. Genotyping or gene resequencing and mRNA expression were also evaluated. Multivariate analysis was used to test the association of UGT2B17 copy number variation, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), age, and sex with its mRNA expression, abundance, and activity. UGT2B17 gene copy number and SNPs (rs7436962, rs9996186, rs28374627, and rs4860305) were associated with gene expression, protein levels, and androgen glucuronidation rates in a gene dose-dependent manner. UGT2B17 protein (mean ± S.D. picomoles per milligram of microsomal protein) is sparsely expressed in children younger than 9 years (0.12 ± 0.24 years) but profoundly increases from age 9 years to adults (∼10-fold) with ∼2.6-fold greater abundance in males than in females (1.2 vs. 0.47). Association of androgen glucuronidation with UGT2B15 abundance was observed only in the low UGT2B17 expressers. These data can be used to predict variability in the metabolism of UGT2B17 substrates. Drug companies should include UGT2B17 in early phenotyping assays during drug discovery to avoid late clinical failures.

Circulating sex steroids coregulate adipose tissue immune cell populations in healthy men.

Male hypogonadism results in changes in body composition characterized by increases in fat mass. Resident immune cells influence energy metabolism in adipose tissue and could promote increased adiposity through paracrine effects. We hypothesized that manipulation of circulating sex steroid levels in healthy men would alter adipose tissue immune cell populations. Subjects (n = 44 men, 19-55 yr of age) received 4 wk of treatment with the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist acyline with daily administration of 1) placebo gel, 2) 1.25 g testosterone gel (1.62%), 3) 5 g testosterone gel, or 4) 5 g testosterone gel with an aromatase inhibitor. Subcutaneous adipose tissue biopsies were performed at baseline and end-of-treatment, and adipose tissue immune cells, gene expression, and intra-adipose estrogen levels were quantified. Change in serum total testosterone level correlated inversely with change in the number of CD3+ (ß = -0.36, P = 0.04), CD4+ (ß = -0.34, P = 0.04), and CD8+ (ß = -0.33, P = 0.05) T cells within adipose tissue. Change in serum 17ß-estradiol level correlated inversely with change in the number of adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) (ß = -0.34, P = 0.05). A negative association also was found between change in serum testosterone and change in CD11c+ ATMs (ß = -0.41, P = 0.01). Overall, sex steroid deprivation was associated with increases in adipose tissue T cells and ATMs. No associations were found between changes in serum sex steroid levels and changes in adipose tissue gene expression. Circulating sex steroid levels may regulate adipose tissue immune cell populations. These exploratory findings highlight a possible novel mechanism that could contribute to increased metabolic risk in hypogonadal men.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model of All-trans-Retinoic Acid with Application to Cancer Populations and Drug Interactions.

All-trans retinoic acid (atRA) is a front-line treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Due to its activity in regulating the cell cycle, it has also been evaluated for the treatment of other cancers. However, the efficacy of atRA has been limited by atRA inducing its own metabolism during therapy, resulting in a decrease of atRA exposure during continuous dosing. Frequent relapse occurs in patients receiving atRA monotherapy. In an attempt to combat therapy resistance, inhibitors of atRA metabolism have been developed. Of these, ketoconazole and liarozole have shown some benefits, but their usage is limited by side effects and low potency toward the cytochrome P450 26A1 isoform (CYP26A1), the main atRA hydroxylase. We determined the pharmacokinetic basis of therapy resistance to atRA and tested whether the complex disposition kinetics of atRA could be predicted in healthy subjects and in cancer patients in the presence and absence of inhibitors of atRA metabolism using physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. A PBPK model of atRA disposition was developed and verified in healthy individuals and in cancer patients. The population-based PBPK model of atRA disposition incorporated saturable metabolic clearance of atRA, induction of CYP26A1 by atRA, and the absorption and distribution kinetics of atRA. It accurately predicted the changes in atRA exposure after continuous dosing and when coadministered with ketoconazole and liarozole. The developed model will be useful in interpretation of atRA disposition and efficacy, design of novel dosing strategies, and development of next-generation atRA metabolism inhibitors.

Dose-response effects of sex hormone concentrations on body composition and adipokines in medically castrated healthy men administered graded doses of testosterone gel.

OBJECTIVE: Serum sex steroid concentrations may alter body composition and glucose homoeostasis in men in a dose-response manner. We evaluated these end-points in healthy men rendered medically castrate through use of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone antagonist (acyline) with incremental doses of exogenous testosterone (T) gel. DESIGN: Subjects (n=6-9 per group) were randomly assigned to injections of acyline every 2 weeks plus transdermal T gel (1.25 g, 2.5 g, 5.0 g, 10 g or 15 g) daily or double placebo (injections and gel) for 12 weeks. PATIENTS: Healthy men, ages 25-55 years, with normal serum total T concentrations. MEASUREMENTS: Serum T, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and oestradiol (E2) were measured at baseline and every 2 weeks. Body composition was analysed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at baseline and week 12. Fasting serum adiponectin, leptin, glucose and insulin concentrations were measured at baseline and week 10. RESULTS: Forty-eight men completed the study. A significant treatment effect was observed for change in lean mass (ANOVAP=.01) but not fat mass (P=.14). Lean mass increased in the 15 g T group relative to all lower dose groups, except the 10 g T group. When all subjects were analysed together, changes in lean mass correlated directly and changes in fat mass correlated inversely with serum T, E2 and DHT. No changes were noted in serum glucose, insulin or adipokine levels. CONCLUSIONS: In healthy men, higher serum concentrations of T, DHT and E2 were associated with greater increases in lean mass and decreases in fat mass but not with changes in serum glucose, insulin or adipokines.

Importance of ALDH1A enzymes in determining human testicular retinoic acid concentrations.

Retinoic acid (RA), the active metabolite of vitamin A, is required for spermatogenesis and many other biological processes. RA formation requires irreversible oxidation of retinal to RA by aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes of the 1A family (ALDH1A). While ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, and ALDH1A3 all form RA, the expression pattern and relative contribution of these enzymes to RA formation in the testis is unknown. In this study, novel methods to measure ALDH1A protein levels and intrinsic RA formation were used to accurately predict RA formation velocities in individual human testis samples and an association between RA formation and intratesticular RA concentrations was observed. The distinct localization of ALDH1A in the testis suggests a specific role for each enzyme in controlling RA formation. ALDH1A1 was found in Sertoli cells, while only ALDH1A2 was found in spermatogonia, spermatids, and spermatocytes. In the absence of cellular retinol binding protein (CRBP)1, ALDH1A1 was predicted to be the main contributor to intratesticular RA formation, but when CRBP1 was present, ALDH1A2 was predicted to be equally important in RA formation as ALDH1A1. This study provides a comprehensive novel methodology to evaluate RA homeostasis in human tissues and provides insight to how the individual ALDH1A enzymes mediate RA concentrations in specific cell types.

Inhibition of retinoic acid biosynthesis by the bisdichloroacetyldiamine WIN 18,446 markedly suppresses spermatogenesis and alters retinoid metabolism in mice.

Knowledge of the regulation of testicular retinoic acid synthesis is crucial for understanding its role in spermatogenesis. Bisdichloroacetyldiamines strongly inhibit spermatogenesis. We reported previously that one of these compounds, WIN 18,446, potently inhibited spermatogenesis in rabbits by inhibiting retinoic acid synthesis. To understand how WIN 18,446 inhibits retinoic acid synthesis, we characterized its effects on human retinal dehydrogenase ALDH1A2 in vitro as well as its effects on retinoid metabolism in vivo using mice. WIN 18,446 strongly and irreversibly inhibited ALDH1A2 in vitro. In vivo, WIN 18,446 treatment completely abolished spermatogenesis after 4 weeks of treatment and modestly reduced adiposity in mice fed a chow diet. Effects of WIN 18,446 on retinoid concentrations were tissue-dependent. Although lung and liver retinyl ester concentrations were lower in WIN 18,446-treated animals, adipose retinyl ester levels were increased following the treatment. Interestingly, animals treated with WIN 18,446 had significantly higher circulating retinol concentrations compared with control mice. The effect on spermatogenesis by WIN 18,446 was not prevented by simultaneous treatment with retinoic acid, whereas effects on other tissues were partially or completely reversed. Cessation of WIN 18,446 treatment for 4 weeks reversed most retinoid-related phenotypes except for inhibition of spermatogenesis. Our data suggest that WIN 18,446 may be a useful model of systemic acquired retinoic acid deficiency. Given the effects observed in our study, inhibition of retinoic acid biosynthesis may have relevance for the treatment of obesity and in the development of novel male contraceptives.

The association of obesity with sex hormone-binding globulin is stronger than the association with ageing--implications for the interpretation of total testosterone measurements.

OBJECTIVE: Total testosterone concentrations are influenced by sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations, which are decreased by obesity and increased with ageing. Therefore, we sought to understand and compare the associations of ageing and obesity with SHBG. DESIGN: We performed a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of the associations of obesity and age on SHBG and testosterone measurements in men being evaluated for hypogonadism. PATIENTS, MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS: A total of 3671 men who underwent laboratory testing for testosterone deficiency from the Veterans Administration Puget Sound Health Care System from 1997 through 2007 was included. Univariate and multivariate linear regression modelling of the associations between age and body mass index (BMI) and SHBG was performed. RESULTS: Obesity was associated with a significantly lower SHBG [ß = -1·26 (95% CI -1·14, -1·38) nmol/l] per unit increase in BMI. In contrast, ageing was associated with a significantly increased SHBG [ß = 0·46 (95% CI 0·39, 0·53) nmol/l per year] (P < 0·001 for both effects). The association of obesity with lower SHBG was two to three times larger than the association of ageing with increased SHBG in both univariate and multivariate modelling. On average, obese men (BMI >30 kg/m(2)) had significantly lower SHBG and total testosterone concentrations than nonobese men [(mean ± SD) SHBG: 36 ± 22 vs 50 ± 27 nmol/l and total testosterone: 10·5 ± 5·4 nmol/l vs 14·1 ± 7·4 nmol/l; (P < 0·001 for both comparisons)], but calculated free testosterone concentrations did not differ between obese and nonobese men. CONCLUSIONS: We found that the association between obesity and lowered SHBG is greater than the association of ageing with increased SHBG. These competing effects may impact total testosterone measurements for the diagnosis of low testosterone, particularly in obese men.

Emerging approaches to male contraception.

BACKGROUND: Currently, approximately half of all pregnancies worldwide are unintended. Contraceptive use significantly reduces the risk of unintended pregnancy; however, options for men are particularly limited. Consequently, efforts are underway to develop novel, safe, and effective male contraceptives. RESULTS: This review discusses research into emerging male contraceptive methods that either inhibit sperm production or impair sperm function. It focuses on those in the preclinical or early clinical stages of development.

Shared risk and shared responsibility: the ethics of male contraceptives.

INTRODUCTION: Efforts to develop reversible male contraceptives analogous to female oral contraceptives are underway and may be introduced in the next decade. The advent of novel male contraceptives provides an opportunity for an ethical reformulation of the contraceptive paradigm given the relational, rather than individual, nature of sexual relationships, and family planning. For individuals in any sexual relationship that could result in pregnancy, issues of reproductive autonomy, freedom, equality in reproductive decision-making and risks-both of side effects and of unintended pregnancies-are significant. Historically, however, women have been attributed the greatest responsibilities simultaneously with the most restrictions on their freedom of choice and access to reproductive care. OBJECTIVES: In this paper, we extend our prior "shared risk" model of male contraception to one of "shared risk and responsibility" to ethically inform this discourse. CONCLUSIONS: This updated framework more fully captures the complexity of this novel technology and may be of use to regulatory and legal agencies grappling with an intervention that poses medical risks to the member of the relationship who does not face risks of becoming pregnant.

Return to fertility, toxicology, and transgenerational impact of treatment with WIN 18,446, a potential male contraceptive, in mice.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the return to fertility and transgenerational impact of treatment with WIN 18,446, an experimental male contraceptive, in mice. STUDY DESIGN: We paired male mice treated with WIN 18,446 for 4 weeks to suppress spermatogenesis, followed by a 9-week recovery, and mated them with normal females to assess fertility. F1 generation mice were subsequently mated to ascertain any transgenerational impact of treatment on fertility. Testes were examined histologically. RESULTS: WIN 18,446-treated mice and their progeny produced normally sized litters (6.5 pups per litter after treatment and 7.3 pups per litter from the progeny). However, testes histology revealed rare residual intratesticular foci of mineralization after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Fertility normalizes after WIN 18,446 treatment, and progeny also have normal fertility.

Open-Channel Droplet Microfluidic Platform for Passive Generation of Human Sperm Microdroplets.

Sperm cryopreservation is important for individuals undergoing infertility treatment, and for those who wish to preserve fertility potential, prior to treatments like chemotherapy, radiation therapy, gender-affirming medical interventions, elective fertility delay, or individuals in high-risk professions such as the military. Current methods for sperm cryopreservation result in approximately 30-50% decrease in sperm motility. However, recent studies have shown that ultra-rapid freezing (vitrification) is a valuable approach for maintaining sperm quality after freeze-thawing processes in the clinical laboratory setting and requires submicroliter to microliter volumes. A major challenge for the adoption of vitrification in fertility laboratories is the ability to pipette small volumes of sample. Here, we present a method that leverages open-channel droplet microfluidics to autonomously generate sub-microliter to microliter volumes of purified human sperm samples. Using a novel, open-channel droplet generator, we found no change in sperm movement and kinematic data after exposure to device and reagents in our platform. We conclude that our platform is compatible with human sperm, an important foundation for future implementation of vitrification in fertility laboratories.

Turning a spermatogenic wave into a tsunami: synchronizing murine spermatogenesis using WIN 18,446.

The BDADs (bis-[dichloroacetyl]-diamines) are compounds that can inhibit spermatogenesis via blocking the metabolism of vitamin A. We utilized one specific BDAD, WIN 18,446, to manipulate the endogenous production of retinoic acid (RA) in the testis to further investigate the action of this compound on mammalian sperm production. Transient treatment of adult male mice with WIN 18,446 blocked spermatogonial differentiation and induced significant changes in the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. WIN 18,446 treatment of neonatal mice also blocked spermatogonial differentiation and, followed by injection of RA, induced synchronous spermatogenesis in adulthood. The net result was pulsatile, rather than normal continuous, release of sperm from the seminiferous epithelium. This study describes a novel technique that can enrich for specific germ cell populations within the testis, representing a valuable new tool for studying spermatogenesis.