Expression of the murine small heat shock proteins hsp 25 and alpha B crystallin in the absence of stress.

Stress induces the synthesis of several large and small heat shock proteins (hsp's). Two related small hsp's, hsp25 and alpha B crystallin exist in mice. alpha B crystallin is an abundant protein in several tissues even in the absence of stress. Particularly high amounts accumulate in the eye lens. Here we show that hsp25 is likewise constitutively expressed in many normal adult tissues. In the absence of stress the protein is most abundant in the eye lens, heart, stomach, colon, lung, and bladder. The stress-independent expression pattern of the two small hsp's is distinct. In several tissues the amount of hsp25 exceeds that accumulating in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts in response to heat stress. hsp25, like alpha B crystallin, exists in a highly aggregated form in the eye lens. The expression of hsp25 and alpha B crystallin in normal tissues suggests an essential, but distinct function of the two related proteins under standard physiological conditions.

Growth-inhibitory activity and downregulation of the class II tumor-suppressor gene H-rev107 in tumor cell lines and experimental tumors.

The H-rev107 gene is a new class II tumor suppressor, as defined by its reversible downregulation and growth-inhibiting capacity in HRAS transformed cell lines. Overexpression of the H-rev107 cDNA in HRAS-transformed ANR4 hepatoma cells or in FE-8 fibroblasts resulted in 75% reduction of colony formation. Cell populations of H-rev107 transfectants showed an attenuated tumor formation in nude mice. Cells explanted from tumors or maintained in cell culture for an extended period of time no longer exhibited detectable levels of the H-rev107 protein, suggesting strong selection against H-rev107 expression in vitro and in vivo. Expression of the truncated form of H-rev107 lacking the COOH-terminal membrane associated domain of 25 amino acids, had a weaker inhibitory effect on proliferation in vitro and was unable to attenuate tumor growth in nude mice. The H-rev107 mRNA is expressed in most adult rat tissues, and immunohistochemical analysis showed expression of the protein in differentiated epithelial cells of stomach, of colon and small intestine, in kidney, bladder, esophagus, and in tracheal and bronchial epithelium. H-rev107 gene transcription is downregulated in rat cell lines derived from liver, kidney, and pancreatic tumors and also in experimental mammary tumors expressing a RAS transgene. In colon carcinoma cell lines only minute amounts of protein were detectable. Thus, downregulation of H-rev107 expression may occur at the level of mRNA or protein.

A novel family of serine/threonine kinases participating in spermiogenesis.

The molecular mechanisms regulating the spectacular cytodifferentiation observed during spermiogenesis are poorly understood. We have recently identified a murine testis-specific serine kinase (tssk) 1, constituting a novel subfamily of serine/threonine kinases. Using low stringency screening we have isolated and molecularly characterized a second closely related family member, tssk 2, which is probably the orthologue of the human DGS-G gene. Expression of tssk 1 and tssk 2 was limited to the testis of sexually mature males. Immunohistochemical staining localized both kinases to the cytoplasm of late spermatids and to structures resembling residual bodies. tssk 1 and tssk 2 were absent in released sperms in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules and the epididymis, demonstrating a tight window of expression restricted to the last stages of spermatid maturation. In vitro kinase assays of immunoprecipitates containing either tssk 1 or tssk 2 revealed no autophosphorylation of the kinases, however, they led to serine phosphorylation of a coprecipitating protein of approximately 65 kD. A search for interacting proteins using the yeast two-hybrid system with tssk 1 and tssk 2 cDNA as baits and a prey cDNA library from mouse testis, led to the isolation of a novel cDNA, interacting specifically with both tssk 1 and tssk 2, and encoding the coprecipitated 65-kD protein phosphorylated by both kinases. Interestingly, expression of the interacting clone was also testis specific and paralleled the developmental expression observed for the kinases themselves. These results represent the first demonstration of the involvement of a distinct kinase family, the tssk serine/threonine kinases, together with a substrate in the cytodifferentiation of late spermatids to sperms.

Identification of the p53 family-responsive element in the promoter region of the tumor suppressor gene hypermethylated in cancer 1.

The tumor suppressor gene hypermethylated in cancer 1 (HIC1), located on human chromosome 17p13.3, is frequently silenced in cancer by epigenetic mechanisms. Hypermethylated in cancer 1 belongs to the bric à brac/poxviruses and zinc-finger family of transcription factors and acts by repressing target gene expression. It has been shown that enforced p53 expression leads to increased HIC1 mRNA, and recent data suggest that p53 and Hic1 cooperate in tumorigenesis. In order to elucidate the regulation of HIC1 expression, we have analysed the HIC1 promoter region for p53-dependent induction of gene expression. Using progressively truncated luciferase reporter gene constructs, we have identified a p53-responsive element (PRE) 500 bp upstream of the TATA-box containing promoter P0 of HIC1, which is sequence specifically bound by p53 in vitro as assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. We demonstrate that this HIC1 p53-responsive element (HIC1.PRE) is necessary and sufficient to mediate induction of transcription by p53. This result is supported by the observation that abolishing endogenous wild-type p53 function prevents HIC1 mRNA induction in response to UV-induced DNA damage. Other members of the p53 family, notably TAp73beta and DeltaNp63alpha, can also act through this HIC1.PRE to induce transcription of HIC1, and finally, hypermethylation of the HIC1 promoter attenuates inducibility by p53.

Dual in vitro perfusion of an isolated cotyledon as a model to study the implication of changes in the third trimester placenta on preeclampsia.

In the current study perfusions of an isolated cotyledon of term placenta using standard medium were compared to medium containing xanthine plus xanthine oxidase (X+XO), which generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). A time-dependant increase in the levels of different cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1ss, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10) was observed between 1 and 7h with more than 90% of the total recovered from the maternal compartment with no significant difference between the 2 groups. For 8-iso-PGF2alpha 90% of the total was found in the fetal compartment and a significantly higher total release was seen in the X+XO group. Microparticles (MPs) isolated from the maternal circuit were identified by flow cytometry as trophoblastic sheddings, whereas MPs from the fetal circuit were predominantly derived from endothelial cells. More than 90% of the total of MPs was found in the maternal circuit. The absolute amount of the total as well as the maternal fraction were significantly higher in the X+XO group. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of the perfused tissue revealed staining for IL-1beta of villous stroma cells, which became clearly more pronounced in experiments with X+XO. Western blot of tissue homogenate revealed 2 isoforms of IL-1beta at 17 and 31kD. In X+XO experiments there was a tendency for increased expression of antioxidant enzymes in the tissue. Western blot of MPs from the maternal circuit showed increased expression of antioxidant enzymes in the X+XO group and for IL-1beta only the 17kD band was detected. In vitro reperfusion of human placental tissue results in mild tissue injury suggestive of oxidative stress. In view of the increased generation of ROS in perfused tissue with further increase under the influence of X+XO, the overall manifestation of oxidative stress remained rather mild. Preservation of antioxidant capacity of human placental tissue could be a sign of integrity of structure and function being maintained in vitro by dual perfusion of an isolated cotyledon. The observed changes resemble findings seen in placentae from preeclampsia.

Differential expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase EphB4 and its ligand Ephrin-B2 during human placental development.

Normal placentation involves the development of an utero-placental circulation following the migration of the extravillous cytotrophoblasts into the decidua and invasion of the spiral arteries, which are thereby transformed into large vessels of low resistance. Given the documented role of the receptor tyrosine kinase EphB4 and its ligand ephrin-B2 in the establishment of the embryonal vascular network, we hypothesized that these molecules are also instrumental in the development of the human placenta. Monitoring the expression during placental development revealed that in first trimester and term placentae both molecules are equally expressed at the RNA level. In contrast, the protein levels were significantly reduced during gestation. Immunohistochemistry revealed a distinct localization of the EphB4 and ephrin-B2 proteins. EphB4 was predominantly expressed in the villous syncytial trophoblast layer and in a subset of intravillous capillaries. Prominent expression was also observed in the extravillous cytotrophoblast giant cells. In contrast, ephrin-B2 expression was detected in the villous cytotrophoblast and syncytial trophoblast cell layers, as well as initially in all intravillous capillaries. Strong expression was also observed in extravillous anchoring cytotrophoblast cells. Hypoxia is a major inducer of placental development. In vitro studies employing trophoblast-derived cell lines revealed that predominantly ephrin-B2 expression is induced by hypoxia, however, in an Hif-1alpha independent manner. These experiments suggest that EphB4 and ephrin-B2 are instrumental in the establishment of a functional placental structure and of the utero-placental circulation.

T1, an immunoglobulin superfamily member, is expressed in H-ras-dependent epithelial tumours of mammary cells.

T1 is a glycosylated protein in the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) family of tumour marker molecules. It was originally identified by virtue of its transient induction after the expression of p21H-ras in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. Here we show that the T1 gene is activated in mammary adenocarcinomas of transgenic mice harbouring an H-ras transgene under the control of the mammary-specific whey acidic protein (WAP) promoter. By contrast, T1 mRNA was not, or only faintly, detectable in mammary carcinomas of transgenic mice bearing a WAP-myc transgene. Thus, T1 overexpression does not appear to be a general tumour-specific phenomenon. A dependence of T1 gene expression on the action of p21H-ras is suggested by the observation of T1 mRNA in nude mouse tumours generated from H-ras-transformed cultured mammary epithelial cells. Interestingly, activation of the T1 gene is also found during the maturation of the mammary gland (3-4 weeks after birth), whereas it is absent during its terminal differentiation in pregnancy and lactation. This expression pattern suggests a role for the secreted T1 glycoprotein in the phase of epithelial proliferation of the mammary gland. It appears that p21H-ras-induced transformation of mammary epithelial cells mimics the situation occurring in puberty. In both developmental stages the T1 glycoprotein might affect cell interactions of the proliferating epithelial cells with the surrounding stroma. It might thus promote ductal outgrowth in gland maturation as well as invasive growth of p21H-ras-transformed mammary epithelial cells.

H-ras induced transformation of mammary epithelium is favoured by increased oncogene expression or by inhibition of mammary regression.

The promoter of the mammary specific murine whey acidic protein gene was used to direct Ha-ras expression in different lines of transgenic mice. We found that this promoter contains a tissue specific enhancer which directed expression in both orientations albeit to different levels. We used this feature to generate low and high ras expressing transgenic lines. The reversed orientation led to a weak expression in lines 3 and 58 and to a tumor frequency of 2%. In contrast, 72% of mice from line 25 showing high ras expression developed mammary tumors. Nulliparity is one risk factor for human breast cancer, suggesting a protective effect of post-lactational mammary regression. In order to investigate the effect of post-lactational regression, the low tumor frequency lines were crossed with mice expressing ubiquitously the human growth hormone gene, which induces permanent development of the mammary epithelium. Indeed, mammary tumors were observed in 76% of double transgenic females. Thus, the tumorigenic potential of the ras oncogene in mammary cells in vivo correlates with the level of its expression and with the developmental history of the mammary gland. Transformation coincides with the escape of oncogene expression from the regulation of the Wap promoter and the extinction of endogenous Wap gene expression.

JAK2, a third member of the JAK family of protein tyrosine kinases.

We have isolated cDNA clones encoding a third, widely expressed, member of the JAK family of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs). The anticipated amino acid sequence of JAK2 predicts the presence of two kinase-related domains, a feature characteristic of this family of PTKs. The structural similarity of JAK2 to the other members of this family extends towards their N-termini, beyond the two kinase-related domains, and reveals five further domains of substantial amino acid similarity. The C-terminal portion of one of these domains, the JH4 domain, bears an intriguing, albeit tenuous, similarity to the core element of the SH2 domain, whereas the remaining JAK homology domains do not appear to be a feature of other known proteins.

Expression of two novel eph-related receptor protein tyrosine kinases in mammary gland development and carcinogenesis.

To investigate the involvement of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) in the growth control of mammary epithelial cells, we have used PCR based cloning to identify PTKs expressed in a mouse mammary epithelial cell line. This approach led to the isolation of two receptor PTKs of the eph-related subfamily; myk-1, a novel member expressed predominantly in lung, heart and mammary gland and myk-2, a close relative of the human eck gene. Northern blot analysis of RNA from mouse mammary glands at different stages of development revealed that myk-1 and myk-2 expression is induced at puberty and differentially regulated during the estrus cycle. myk-1 and myk-2 expression was down-regulated during the pregnancy induced differentiation of the mammary gland. Over-expression of myk-1 and myk-2 was found in the undifferentiated and invasive mammary tumors of transgenic mice expressing the Ha-ras oncogene. In contrast, no elevated expression of either gene could be detected in the well differentiated and non-metastatic mammary tumors of c-myc expressing transgenic mice. These results indicate that myk-1 and myk-2 expression is induced during the proliferation of the mammary gland and down-regulated by its differentiation.

Comparative analysis of the cDNA sequences derived from the larval and the adult alpha 1-globin mRNAs of Xenopus laevis.

The complete nucleotide sequences of cloned cDNA segments derived from the larval and the adult alpha 1-globin mRNA of Xenopus laevis have been determined. These sequences comprise part of the 5' noncoding region, the entire coding region and the 3' noncoding region, including the polyadenylation site. The larval sequence differs from the adult one by a much longer 3' noncoding region. The sequences diverge by 47%, but codon usage is similar. Comparison of the amino acid sequences of vertebrates shows that the sites of heme contact are highly conserved, whereas the alpha 1/beta 1- and the alpha 1/beta 11-interfaces diverge to different degrees. In these regions the larval alpha 1-globin diverges less from embryonic than from adult alpha-like globins of vertebrates. This suggests that these sites are mainly responsible for the functional peculiarities of the larval amphibian hemoglobins.

Isolation of cell death-associated cDNAs from involuting mouse mammary epithelium.

Although apoptosis is important in determining cell fate and maintaining tissue homeostasis, the initiation and control of apoptotic cell death in epithelium is not well understood. Post-lactationai involution of the mammary gland provides both an important developmental process and a normal physiological setting for studying apoptosis of epithelium. We used a differential screening strategy, based on previous studies correlating morphology with gene expression and nucleic acid integrity during mammary gland involution, to isolate genes involved in the regulation and execution of apoptotic cell death in regressing mammary epithelium. This screening strategy yielded a large number of genes the expression of which is significantly altered during mammary gland involution. These include genes associated with cell death processes, tissue remodelling and mesenchymal differentiation. In addition, a number of novel genes have been isolated. We have used Northern analysis and in situ hybridisation to study the expression of a selection of these putative death-associated genes during post-lactational mouse mammary gland involution.

A novel member of the testis specific serine kinase family, tssk-3, expressed in the Leydig cells of sexually mature mice.

We have recently characterized two members of a novel family of murine testis specific serine kinases, tssk-1 and tssk-2, expressed exclusively in spermatids undergoing spermiogenesis. Using a differential screening approach we have isolated a third family member, tssk-3. The open reading frame of tssk-3 encodes a protein of 275 amino acids, consisting essentially of a serine/threonine protein kinase domain only. In contrast, tssk-1 and -2 have distinct, approximately 100 amino acid domains located C-terminally to the kinase domain. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that while tssk-1 and tssk-2 form detergent resistant complexes, tssk-3 is not associated with either protein. Expression of tssk-3 was induced at puberty, persisted during adulthood and was restricted to the interstitial Leydig cells of post-pubertal males.

Pmg-1 and pmg-2 constitute a novel family of KAP genes differentially expressed during skin and mammary gland development.

The epidermis, by invagination of the undifferentiated ectodermal cells, gives rise to several distinct structures including hair, sebaceous, eccrine sweat and mammary glands. We have recently isolated a novel gene, pmg-1, expressed in the pubertal mouse mammary gland. While investigating its genomic structure, we identified a related gene in close proximity, which we have termed pmg-2. pmg-1 and pmg-2 are intron-less, are transcribed in opposite directions and are separated by a potential promoter region of 2.8 kb containing putative binding motifs for the developmental transcription factors Lef-1, Sox5 and D-STAT. pmg-1 and pmg-2 encode small proteins rich in G, S, F, Y and Q and contain characteristic repeats reminiscent of the keratin-associated proteins (KAPs). Both genes are expressed in growing hair follicles in skin as well as in sebaceous and eccrine sweat glands. Interestingly, expression is also detected in the mammary epithelium where it is limited to the onset of the pubertal growth phase and is independent of ovarian hormones. Their broad, developmentally controlled expression pattern, together with their unique amino acid composition, demonstrate that pmg-1 and pmg-2 constitute a novel KAP gene family participating in the differentiation of all epithelial cells forming the epidermal appendages.

Precocious mammary gland development and milk protein synthesis in transgenic mice ubiquitously expressing human growth hormone.

A chimeric gene comprising the hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme-A reductase promoter and the human GH (hGH) genomic sequences was used to create transgenic mice expressing hGH in all tissues. In transgenic females, morphological development of the mammary gland and milk protein (WAP) expression commences at 3 weeks of age. At 8 weeks of age the mammary gland is morphologically and functionally comparable to that normally reached after 14-15 days of gestation. Precocious development correlated with local expression of hGH in mammary gland. Organ culture in the presence of different lactogenic hormones revealed that insulin and hydrocortisone are sufficient to maintain transcription of the WAP gene in transgenic mammary gland. In contrast, WAP transcription in normal gland required either hGH or PRL in addition to insulin and hydrocortisone. However, the effect of hGH on mammary differentiation does not appear to be solely mediated through an interaction with PRL receptors, since PRL, when added to cultured mammary tissues, did not elicit an equivalent response.

Characterization of a novel murine testis-specific serine/threonine kinase.

Using degenerate oligos corresponding to two highly conserved motifs within the protein kinase catalytic domain and a PCR-based cloning strategy, we have isolated a cDNA fragment encoding a new member of the Ser/Thr (serine/threonine) family of protein kinases. Expression analysis revealed that the fragment recognized two transcripts (1.6 and 1.4 kb) exclusively in testis. Using this fragment as a probe, we have cloned a full-length cDNA from a mouse testis cDNA library. The sequence has a 1092-bp open reading frame encoding a protein of 364 amino acids. The N-terminally localized kinase catalytic domain has all the conserved motifs found in other Ser/Thr kinases. Northern blot analysis using the full-length sequence as a probe revealed that the cloned gene corresponds to the 1.6-kb transcript, suggesting the existence of at least two testis-specific novel Ser/Thr kinases. We propose the name testis-specific kinase-1 (TSK-1) for the gene described here. A GenEMBL databank search revealed highest homology to the human gene encoding rac protein kinase-beta and the group of yeast Ser/Thr kinases encoded by SNF-1, nim-1, KIN-1 and KIN-2.

pmg-1, a novel gene specifically expressed during the invasive growth phase of the mammary gland at puberty.

The acquisition of invasive properties is a crucial event during carcinogenesis, determining the clinical outcome. The mammary gland at puberty provides an ideal model for investigating the induction and control of invasive growth. During this growth phase, the mammary epithelium participates in a normal, hormonally controlled invasive penetration into the stroma. We have applied the differential display method to search for genes specifically activated during this developmental stage. We have identified and molecularly characterized a novel pubertal mammary gland specific gene, pmg-1. This gene is conserved in mammals and encodes a protein of 19.9 kDa. Northern blotting and in situ hybridization revealed that pmg-1 expression was exquisitely restricted to the epithelium at early puberty. To our knowledge this represents the first isolation of a gene specifically associated with the induction of mammary epithelial invasiveness at puberty.

Trophoblast viability in perfused term placental tissue and explant cultures limited to 7-24 hours.

Human term-placental culture techniques such as villous explant or dual perfusion are commonly used to study trophoblast function under control and experimentally manipulated conditions. We have compared trophoblast viability during perfusion and in explants cultured under various conditions by monitoring glucose consumption, protein synthesis and secretion, expression of differentiation-specific genes, induction of stress proteins and apoptotic cell death. The tissue was obtained from term-placentae of uncomplicated pregnancies after elective Caesarean delivery. We observed a severe loss of trophoblast viability in explants irrespective of the culture conditions used. Over 7 h of culture the amount of the differentiation specific placental hormones hCG, hPL and leptin accumulated in the medium dropped significantly. Analysis of their expression by semi-quantitative and real-time RT-PCR revealed that the down-regulation of expression occurred at the transcriptional level. This transcriptional repression was accompanied by induction of the stress-proteins RTP and BiP/GRP78. Analysis of apoptotic cell death by TUNEL assay and immunohistochemical detection of the caspase-3-specific degradation product of cytokeratin 18 revealed prominent cell death after 7 h of culture. These results are in contrast to the findings obtained in perfused placental tissue where, after 7 h of culture, hormone secretion, expression of stress proteins and cell death were similar as in native tissue. This difference between villous explant incubation and dual perfusion is also reflected by a significantly higher consumption of glucose in perfused tissue.

Vascular remodelling during the normal and malignant life cycle of the mammary gland.

The mammary gland life cycle is exemplified by massive, physiologically dictated changes in cell number and composition, architecture, and functionality. These drastic upheavals, by necessity, also involve the mammary endothelium, which undergoes angiogenic expansion during pregnancy and lactation followed by ordered regression during involution. In this review, we summarise data obtained using the Mercox methyl methacrylate corrosion cast technique to analyse the mammary gland vasculature during normal development and carcinogenesis. Concomitant with epithelial cell expansion, the mammary vasculature grows during the first half of pregnancy by sprouting angiogenesis whereas the last half of pregnancy and lactation are characterised by the non-proliferative intussusceptive angiogenesis. The vasculature of the lactating gland is composed of a well-developed capillary meshwork enveloping the secretory alveoli with basket-like honeycomb structures. During involution, regression of the vasculature is achieved by regional collapse of the honeycomb structures, capillary retraction, and endothelial attenuation. This process appears partly to involve apoptosis. However, an additional mechanism involving remodelling without cell death, which we have termed angiomeiosis, must exist to explain the morphological observations. Interestingly, in mammary tumours of neuT transgenic mice, both sprouting and intussusceptive angiogenesis was observed simultaneously in the same nodules, a finding with potential implications for cancer therapy. The underlying molecular mechanisms controlling angiogenic modulation in the mammary gland, particularly angiogenic regression and the endothelial:parenchymal interplay, are poorly understood. However, the data summarised in this review indicate that precisely these molecular mechanisms offer novel alternatives for specific and effective treatment of breast cancer.