Prostaglandin E2/Leukotriene B4 balance and viral load in distinct clinical stages of COVID-19: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) are eicosanoids involved in modulation of the antiviral immune response. Recent studies have identified increased levels of several eicosanoids in the plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage of patients with coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This study investigated correlations between plasma levels of PGE2 and LTB4 and clinical severity of COVID-19. METHODS: This cross-sectional study involved non-infected (n = 10) individuals and COVID-19 patients classified as cured (n = 13), oligosymptomatic (n = 29), severe (n = 15) or deceased (n = 11). Levels of D-dimer a, known COVID-19 severity marker, PGE2 and LTB4 were measured by ELISAs and data were analysed with respect to viral load. RESULTS: PGE2 plasma levels were decreased in COVID-19 patients compared to the non-infected group. Changes in PGE2 and LTB4 levels did not correlate with any particular clinical presentations of COVID-19. However, LTB4 was related to decreased SARS-CoV-2 burden in patients, suggesting that only LTB4 is associated with control of viral load. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that PGE2/LTB4 plasma levels are not associated with COVID-19 clinical severity. Hospitalized patients with COVID-19 are treated with corticosteroids, which may influence the observed eicosanoid imbalance. Additional analyses are required to fully understand the participation of PGE2 receptors in the pathophysiology of COVID-19.

Coagulopathy and the humoral response against viral proteins in patients at different stages of COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: Patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) often present with coagulopathies and have high titres of circulating antibodies against viral proteins. OBJECTIVES: Herein, we evaluated the association between D-dimer and circulating immunoglobulin levels against viral proteins in patients at different clinical stages of COVID-19. METHODS: For this, we performed a cross-sectional study involving patients of the first wave of COVID-19 clinically classified as oligosymptomatic (n = 22), severe (n = 30), cured (n = 27) and non-infected (n = 9). Next, we measured in the plasma samples the total and fraction of immunoglobulins against the nucleoprotein (NP) and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike proteins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays. FINDINGS: Patients with severe disease had a coagulation disorder with high levels of D-dimer as well as circulating IgG against the NP but not the RBD compared to other groups of patients. In addition, high levels of D-dimer and IgG against the NP and RBD were associated with disease severity among the patients in this study. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that IgG against NP and RBD participates in the worsening of COVID-19. Although the humoral response against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is partially understood, and more efforts are needed to clarify gaps in the knowledge of this process.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids alter the formation of lipid droplets and eicosanoid production in Leishmania promastigotes.

BACKGROUND: The knowledge about eicosanoid metabolism and lipid droplet (LD) formation in the Leishmania is very limited and new approaches are needed to identify which bioactive molecules are produced of them. OBJECTIVES: Herein, we compared LDs and eicosanoids biogenesis in distinct Leishmania species which are etiologic agents of different clinical forms of leishmaniasis. METHODS: For this, promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis, L. braziliensis and L. infantum were stimulated with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and LD and eicosanoid production was evaluated. We also compared mutations in structural models of human-like cyclooxygenase-2 (GP63) and prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS) proteins, as well as the levels of these enzymes in parasite cell extracts. FINDINGS: PUFAs modulate the LD formation in L. braziliensis and L. infantum. Leishmania spp with equivalent tissue tropism had same protein mutations in GP63 and PGFS. No differences in GP63 production were observed among Leishmania spp, however PGFS production increased during the parasite differentiation. Stimulation with arachidonic acid resulted in elevated production of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids compared to prostaglandins. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest LD formation and eicosanoid production are distinctly modulated by PUFAS dependent of Leishmania species. In addition, eicosanoid-enzyme mutations are more similar between Leishmania species with same host tropism.

Lipid droplets of protozoan parasites: survival and pathogenicity.

Lipid droplets (LDs; lipid bodies) are intracellular sites of lipid storage and metabolism present in all cell types. Eukaryotic LDs are involved in eicosanoid production during several inflammatory conditions, including infection by protozoan parasites. In parasites, LDs play a role in the acquisition of cholesterol and other neutral lipids from the host. The number of LDs increases during parasite differentiation, and the biogenesis of these organelles use specific signaling pathways involving protein kinases. In addition, LDs are important in cellular protection against lipotoxicity. Recently, these organelles have been implicated in eicosanoid and specialised lipid metabolism. In this article, we revise the main functions of protozoan parasite LDs and discuss future directions in the comprehension of these organelles in the context of pathogen virulence.

Associations between TGF-ß1 Levels and Markers of Hemolysis, Inflammation, and Tissue Remodeling in Pediatric Sickle Cell Patients.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) is a cytokine with important involvement in biological processes related to the pathogenesis of sickle cell disease (SCD), including endothelial and vascular dysfunction, inflammation, and hematopoietic homeostasis. This study is aimed at investigating associations between levels of TGF-ß1 and classical laboratory biomarkers and inflammatory mediators, as well as the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases-1 (TIMP-1) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), in pediatric patients (n = 123) with SCD in steady state: 84 with sickle cell anemia (HbSS) and 39 with hemoglobin SC disease (HbSC). A healthy control (HC) group of 59 individuals was also included. Hematological and biochemical analyses were carried out using electronic methods. TGF-ß1, TIMP-1, and MMP-9 plasma quantifications were performed by ELISA. TGF-ß1 plasma levels were higher in HbSS individuals than in HbSC and HC. In individuals with HbSS, TGF-ß1 levels were positively correlated with red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, platelets, and TIMP-1. In addition, HbSS individuals with TGF-ß1 levels above the median (≥72.29 ng/mL) also presented increased monocyte counts and decreased albumin levels. In patients with HbSC, TGF-ß1 levels were positively correlated with leukocytes, eosinophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, and platelets, as well as levels of TIMP-1, VLDL-C, triglycerides, heme, and AST. Additionally, HbSC individuals with TGF-ß1 levels above the median (≥47.80 ng/mL) presented increased leukocyte and platelet counts, as well as increased levels of triglycerides, VLDL-C, MMP-9, and TIMP-1, and decreased HDL-C. Our findings suggest that TGF-ß1 may play important roles in vascular remodeling, vasculopathy, angiogenesis, and inflammation in pediatric patients with SCD.

Degranulating Neutrophils Promote Leukotriene B4 Production by Infected Macrophages To Kill Leishmania amazonensis Parasites.

Neutrophils mediate early responses against pathogens, and they become activated during endothelial transmigration toward the inflammatory site. In the current study, human neutrophils were activated in vitro with immobilized extracellular matrix proteins, such as fibronectin (FN), collagen, and laminin. Neutrophil activation by FN, but not other extracellular matrix proteins, induces the release of the granules' contents, measured as matrix metalloproteinase 9 and neutrophil elastase activity in culture supernatant, as well as reactive oxygen species production. Upon contact with Leishmania amazonensis-infected macrophages, these FN-activated neutrophils reduce the parasite burden through a mechanism independent of cell contact. The release of granule proteases, such as myeloperoxidase, neutrophil elastase, and matrix metalloproteinase 9, activates macrophages through TLRs, leading to the production of inflammatory mediators, TNF-α and leukotriene B4 (LTB4), which are involved in parasite killing by infected macrophages. The pharmacological inhibition of degranulation reverted this effect, abolishing LTB4 and TNF production. Together, these results suggest that FN-driven degranulation of neutrophils induces the production of LTB4 and TNF by infected macrophages, leading to the control of Leishmania infection.

COX-2 rs20417 Polymorphism Is Associated with Stroke and White Matter Disease.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the effect of COX-2 polymorphism and its product, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), on stroke risk in an endemic area for Chagas disease. In a separate cohort, to investigate the effect of COX-2 polymorphisms on the total burden of cerebral white matter disease. METHODS: Cases were outpatients with ischemic stroke; controls were stroke-free subjects from 2 outpatient clinics (heart failure and caregivers of a movement disorders clinic). We extracted DNA from total blood to investigate the rs20417 COX-2 polymorphism. Serologic tests (Enzime-linked immunosorbent assay) were performed to confirm Trypanosoma cruzi infection and to quantify PGE2 levels. In the Boston cohort, white matter hyperintensity volume (WMHv) was quantified on the admission brain magnetic resonance images of subjects with ischemic stroke, who also donated DNA for the COX-2 gene region analysis. RESULTS: We studied 44 patients with stroke and 96 controls (46 with heart failure and 50 caregivers) in the Brazilian cohort; and 788 stroke patients (302 cardioembolic and 486 noncardioembolic) in the Boston cohort. In the Brazilian cohort, rs20417 polymorphism was associated with both stroke (P = 5 × 10(-6)) and decreased PGE2 levels (P = 4 × 10(-5)); similarly, Chagas was associated with stroke (P = 4 × 10(-3)) and decreased PGE2 levels (P = 7 × 10(-3)). In the Boston cohort, rs20417 polymorphism was associated with increased WMHv among noncardioembolic (P = .037), but not among cardioembolic stroke patients. CONCLUSIONS: Variation in COX-2 gene is associated with both symptomatic and silent brain cerebrovascular disease. This candidate gene region should be tested in population-based samples.

Role of prostaglandin F2α production in lipid bodies from Leishmania infantum chagasi: insights on virulence.

Lipid bodies (LB; lipid droplets) are cytoplasmic organelles involved in lipid metabolism. Mammalian LBs display an important role in host-pathogen interactions, but the role of parasite LBs in biosynthesis of prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) has not been investigated. We report herein that LBs increased in abundance during development of Leishmania infantum chagasi to a virulent metacyclic stage, as did the expression of PGF2α synthase (PGFS). The amount of parasite LBs and PGF2α were modulated by exogenous arachidonic acid. During macrophage infection, LBs were restricted to parasites inside the parasitophorous vacuoles (PV). We detected PGF2α receptor (FP) on the Leishmania PV surface. The blockage of FP with AL8810, a selective antagonist, hampered Leishmania infection, whereas the irreversible inhibition of cyclooxygenase with aspirin increased the parasite burden. These data demonstrate novel functions for parasite-derived LBs and PGF2α in the cellular metabolism of Leishmania and its evasion of the host immune response.

Understanding the mechanisms controlling Leishmania amazonensis infection in vitro: the role of LTB4 derived from human neutrophils.

Neutrophils are rapidly recruited to the site of Leishmania infection and play an active role in capturing and killing parasites. They are the main source of leukotriene B4 (LTB4), a potent proinflammatory lipid mediator. However, the role of LTB4 in neutrophil infection by Leishmania amazonensis is not clear. In this study, we show that L. amazonensis or its lipophosphoglycan can induce neutrophil activation, degranulation, and LTB4 production. Using pharmacological inhibitors of leukotriene synthesis, our findings reveal an LTB4-driven autocrine/paracrine regulatory effect. In particular, neutrophil-derived LTB4 controls L. amazonensis killing, degranulation, and reactive oxygen species production. In addition, L. amazonensis infection induces an early increase in Toll-like receptor 2 expression, which facilitates parasite internalization. Nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) pathway activation represents a required upstream event for L. amazonensis-induced LTB4 synthesis. These leishmanicidal mechanisms mediated by neutrophil-derived LTB4 act through activation of its receptor, B leukotriene receptor 1 (BLT1).

Heme oxygenase-1 promotes the persistence of Leishmania chagasi infection.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) remains a major public health problem worldwide. This disease is highly associated with chronic inflammation and a lack of the cellular immune responses against Leishmania. It is important to identify major factors driving the successful establishment of the Leishmania infection to develop better tools for the disease control. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a key enzyme triggered by cellular stress, and its role in VL has not been investigated. In this study, we evaluated the role of HO-1 in the infection by Leishmania infantum chagasi, the causative agent of VL cases in Brazil. We found that L. chagasi infection or lipophosphoglycan isolated from promastigotes triggered HO-1 production by murine macrophages. Interestingly, cobalt protoporphyrin IX, an HO-1 inductor, increased the parasite burden in both mouse and human-derived macrophages. Upon L. chagasi infection, macrophages from Hmox1 knockout mice presented significantly lower parasite loads when compared with those from wild-type mice. Furthermore, upregulation of HO-1 by cobalt protoporphyrin IX diminished the production of TNF-α and reactive oxygen species by infected murine macrophages and increased Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase expression in human monocytes. Finally, patients with VL presented higher systemic concentrations of HO-1 than healthy individuals, and this increase of HO-1 was reduced after antileishmanial treatment, suggesting that HO-1 is associated with disease susceptibility. Our data argue that HO-1 has a critical role in the L. chagasi infection and is strongly associated with the inflammatory imbalance during VL. Manipulation of HO-1 pathways during VL could serve as an adjunctive therapeutic approach.

Heme impairs prostaglandin E2 and TGF-beta production by human mononuclear cells via Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase: insight into the pathogenesis of severe malaria.

In many hemolytic disorders, such as malaria, the release of free heme has been involved in the triggering of oxidative stress and tissue damage. Patients presenting with severe forms of malaria commonly have impaired regulatory responses. Although intriguing, there is scarce data about the involvement of heme on the regulation of immune responses. In this study, we investigated the relation of free heme and the suppression of anti-inflammatory mediators such as PGE(2) and TGF-beta in human vivax malaria. Patients with severe disease presented higher hemolysis and higher plasma concentrations of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) and lower concentrations of PGE(2) and TGF-beta than those with mild disease. In addition, there was a positive correlation between SOD-1 concentrations and plasma levels of TNF-alpha. During antimalaria treatment, the concentrations of plasma SOD-1 reduced whereas PGE(2) and TGF-beta increased in the individuals severely ill. Using an in vitro model with human mononuclear cells, we demonstrated that the heme effect on the impairment of the production of PGE(2) and TGF-beta partially involves heme binding to CD14 and depends on the production of SOD-1. Aside from furthering the current knowledge about the pathogenesis of vivax malaria, the present results may represent a general mechanism for hemolytic diseases and could be useful for future studies of therapeutic approaches.

Identifying Inconclusive Data in the SARS-CoV-2 Molecular Diagnostic Using Nucleocapsid Phosphoprotein Gene as a Target.

CONTEXT.­: The gold standard test to identify the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 patients is the real-time reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), but inconclusive data and false-positive diagnosis remain the major problem of this approach. OBJECTIVE.­: To compare the fitness of 2 primer sets to the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid phosphoprotein gene (NP) in the molecular diagnosis of COVID-19, we verified the inconclusive data and confidence of high cycle threshold (Ct) values in SARS-CoV-2 detection. DESIGN.­: The 970 patient samples were tested by using United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention protocol. We compared the fitness of 2 primer sets to 2 different regions of the NP gene. In addition, we checked the consistency of positive samples with high Ct values by retesting extracted SARS-CoV-2 RNA or by second testing of patients. RESULTS.­: N1 and N2 displayed similar fitness during testing, with no differences between Ct values. Then, we verified security range Ct values related to positive diagnostics, with Ct values above 34 failing in 21 of 32 cases (65.6%) after retesting of samples. The patient samples with Ct values above 34.89 that were doubly positive revealed a low sensitivity (52.4%) and specificity (63.6%) of the test in samples with Ct values above 34. CONCLUSIONS.­: It is safe to use 1 primer set for the NP gene to identify SARS-CoV-2 in samples. However, samples with high Ct values may be considered inconclusive and retested to avoid false-positive diagnosis.

Lutzomyia longipalpis Saliva Drives Interleukin-17-Induced Neutrophil Recruitment Favoring Leishmania infantum Infection.

During bloodfeeding, the presence of sand fly saliva in the hemorrhagic pool where Leishmania is also inoculated modulates the development of host immune mechanisms creating a favorable environment for disease progression. To date, information obtained through experimental models suggests that sand fly saliva induces cellular recruitment and modulates production of eicosanoids. However, the effect of sand fly saliva in the different steps of the inflammatory response triggered by Leishmania remains undefined. Here we further investigate if interaction of Lutzomyia longipalpis salivary gland sonicate (SGS) with different host cells present during the initial inflammatory events regulate Leishmania infantum infectivity. Initially, we observed that incubation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with Lu. longipalpis SGS in the presence of L. infantum significantly increased IL-10 but did not alter expression of IFN-γ and TNF-α by CD4+ T cells induced by the parasite alone. Interestingly, incubation of PBMC with Lu. longipalpis SGS alone or in the presence of L. infantum resulted in increased IL-17 production. The presence of IL-17 is related to neutrophil recruitment and plays an important role at the site of infection. Here, we also observed increased migration of neutrophil using an in vitro chemotactic assay following incubation with supernatants from PBMC stimulated with L. infantum and Lu. longipalpis SGS. Neutrophil migration was abrogated following neutralization of IL-17 with specific antibodies. Moreover, culture of human neutrophils with L. infantum in the presence of Lu. longipalpis SGS promoted neutrophil apoptosis resulting in increased parasite viability. Neutrophils operate as the first line of defense in the early stages of infection and later interact with different cells, such as macrophages. The crosstalk between neutrophils and macrophages is critical to determine the type of specific immune response that will develop. Here, we observed that co-culture of human macrophages with autologous neutrophils previously infected in the presence of Lu. longipalpis SGS resulted in a higher infection rate, accompanied by increased production of TGF-ß and PGE2. Our results provide new insight into the contribution of Lu. longipalpis SGS to L. infantum-induced regulation of important inflammatory events, creating a favorable environment for parasite survival inside different host cells.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids alter the formation of lipid droplets and eicosanoid production in Leishmania promastigotes

BACKGROUND The knowledge about eicosanoid metabolism and lipid droplet (LD) formation in the Leishmania is very limited and new approaches are needed to identify which bioactive molecules are produced of them. OBJECTIVES Herein, we compared LDs and eicosanoids biogenesis in distinct Leishmania species which are etiologic agents of different clinical forms of leishmaniasis. METHODS For this, promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis, L. braziliensis and L. infantum were stimulated with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and LD and eicosanoid production was evaluated. We also compared mutations in structural models of human-like cyclooxygenase-2 (GP63) and prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS) proteins, as well as the levels of these enzymes in parasite cell extracts. FINDINGS PUFAs modulate the LD formation in L. braziliensis and L. infantum. Leishmania spp with equivalent tissue tropism had same protein mutations in GP63 and PGFS. No differences in GP63 production were observed among Leishmania spp, however PGFS production increased during the parasite differentiation. Stimulation with arachidonic acid resulted in elevated production of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids compared to prostaglandins. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest LD formation and eicosanoid production are distinctly modulated by PUFAS dependent of Leishmania species. In addition, eicosanoid-enzyme mutations are more similar between Leishmania species with same host tropism.

Leishmania infantum Lipophosphoglycan-Deficient Mutants: A Tool to Study Host Cell-Parasite Interplay.

Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is the major surface glycoconjugate of metacyclic Leishmania promastigotes and is associated with virulence in various species of this parasite. Here, we generated a LPG-deficient mutant of Leishmania infantum, the foremost etiologic agent of visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. The L. infantum LPG-deficient mutant (Δlpg1) was obtained by homologous recombination and complemented via episomal expression of LPG1 (Δlpg1 + LPG1). Deletion of LPG1 had no observable effect on parasite morphology or on the presence of subcellular organelles, such as lipid droplets. While both wild-type and add-back parasites reached late phase in axenic cultures, the growth of Δlpg1 parasites was delayed. Additionally, the deletion of LPG1 impaired the outcome of infection in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. Although no significant differences were observed in parasite load after 4 h of infection, survival of Δlpg1 parasites was significantly reduced at 72 h post-infection. Interestingly, L. infantum LPG-deficient mutants induced a strong NF-κB-dependent activation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) promoter compared to wild type and Δlpg1 + LPG1 parasites. In conclusion, the L. infantum Δlpg1 mutant constitutes a powerful tool to investigate the role(s) played by LPG in host cell-parasite interactions.

Anti-parasite therapy drives changes in human visceral leishmaniasis-associated inflammatory balance.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) remains a major public health problem worldwide. Cytokine balance is thought to play a critical role in the development of this disease. Here, we perform a prospective exploratory study addressing whether simultaneous assessment of circulating levels of different lipid mediators and cytokines could highlight specific pathways involved with VL pathogenesis. VL patients displayed substantial increases in serum levels of Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α), Leukotriene B4 (LTB4), Resolvin D1 (RvD1), IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70 and TNF-α compared with uninfected endemic control group, while exhibiting decreased levels of TGF-ß1. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the prospective changes in the expression level of theses parameters upon anti-Leishmania treatment initiation revealed that the inflammatory profile observed in active disease gradually changed over time and was generally reversed at day 30 of therapy. Furthermore, not only the individual concentrations of most of the inflammatory biomarkers changed upon treatment, but the correlations between those and several biochemical parameters used to characterize VL disease activity were also modified over time. These results demonstrate that an inflammatory imbalance hallmarks active VL disease and open perspective for manipulation of these pathways in future studies examining a potential host-directed therapy against VL.

Coagulopathy and the humoral response against viral proteins in patients at different stages of COVID-19

BACKGROUND Patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) often present with coagulopathies and have high titres of circulating antibodies against viral proteins. OBJECTIVES Herein, we evaluated the association between D-dimer and circulating immunoglobulin levels against viral proteins in patients at different clinical stages of COVID-19. METHODS For this, we performed a cross-sectional study involving patients of the first wave of COVID-19 clinically classified as oligosymptomatic (n = 22), severe (n = 30), cured (n = 27) and non-infected (n = 9). Next, we measured in the plasma samples the total and fraction of immunoglobulins against the nucleoprotein (NP) and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike proteins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays. FINDINGS Patients with severe disease had a coagulation disorder with high levels of D-dimer as well as circulating IgG against the NP but not the RBD compared to other groups of patients. In addition, high levels of D-dimer and IgG against the NP and RBD were associated with disease severity among the patients in this study. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that IgG against NP and RBD participates in the worsening of COVID-19. Although the humoral response against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is partially understood, and more efforts are needed to clarify gaps in the knowledge of this process.

Leishmania infantum lipophosphoglycan induced-Prostaglandin E2 production in association with PPAR-γ expression via activation of Toll like receptors-1 and 2.

Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is a key virulence factor expressed on the surfaces of Leishmania promastigotes. Although LPG is known to activate macrophages, the underlying mechanisms resulting in the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) via signaling pathways remain unknown. Here, the inflammatory response arising from stimulation by Leishmania infantum LPG and/or its lipid and glycan motifs was evaluated with regard to PGE2 induction. Intact LPG, but not its glycan and lipid moieties, induced a range of proinflammatory responses, including PGE2 and nitric oxide (NO) release, increased lipid droplet formation, and iNOS and COX2 expression. LPG also induced ERK-1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in macrophages, in addition to the release of PGE2, MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-12p70, but not IL-10. Pharmacological inhibition of ERK1/2 and PKC affected PGE2 and cytokine production. Moreover, treatment with rosiglitazone, an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), also modulated the release of PGE2 and other proinflammatory mediators. Finally, we determined that LPG-induced PPAR-γ signaling occurred via TLR1/2. Taken together, these results reinforce the role played by L. infantum-derived LPG in the proinflammatory response seen in Leishmania infection.

Lipid droplets of protozoan parasites: survival and pathogenicity

Lipid droplets (LDs; lipid bodies) are intracellular sites of lipid storage and metabolism present in all cell types. Eukaryotic LDs are involved in eicosanoid production during several inflammatory conditions, including infection by protozoan parasites. In parasites, LDs play a role in the acquisition of cholesterol and other neutral lipids from the host. The number of LDs increases during parasite differentiation, and the biogenesis of these organelles use specific signaling pathways involving protein kinases. In addition, LDs are important in cellular protection against lipotoxicity. Recently, these organelles have been implicated in eicosanoid and specialised lipid metabolism. In this article, we revise the main functions of protozoan parasite LDs and discuss future directions in the comprehension of these organelles in the context of pathogen virulence.