Structural Aspects of Photopharmacology: Insight into the Binding of Photoswitchable and Photocaged Inhibitors to the Glutamate Transporter Homologue.

Photopharmacology addresses the challenge of drug selectivity and side effects through creation of photoresponsive molecules activated with light with high spatiotemporal precision. This is achieved through incorporation of molecular photoswitches and photocages into the pharmacophore. However, the structural basis for the light-induced modulation of inhibitory potency in general is still missing, which poses a major design challenge for this emerging field of research. Here we solved crystal structures of the glutamate transporter homologue GltTk in complex with photoresponsive transport inhibitors-azobenzene derivative of TBOA (both in trans and cis configuration) and with the photocaged compound ONB-hydroxyaspartate. The essential role of glutamate transporters in the functioning of the central nervous system renders them potential therapeutic targets in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. The obtained structures provide a clear structural insight into the origins of photocontrol in photopharmacology and lay the foundation for application of photocontrolled ligands to study the transporter dynamics by using time-resolved X-ray crystallography.

Conformational transitions in the γ subunit of the archaeal translation initiation factor 2.

In eukaryotes and archaea, the heterotrimeric translation initiation factor 2 (e/aIF2) is pivotal for the delivery of methionylated initiator tRNA (Met-tRNA(i)) to the ribosome. It acts as a molecular switch that cycles between inactive (GDP-bound) and active (GTP-bound) states. Recent studies show that eIF2 can also exist in a long-lived eIF2γ-GDP-P(i) (inorganic phosphate) active state. Here, four high-resolution crystal structures of aIF2γ from Sulfolobus solfataricus are reported: aIF2γ-GDPCP (a nonhydrolyzable GTP analogue), aIF2γ-GDP-formate (in which a formate ion possibly mimics P(i)), aIF2γ-GDP and nucleotide-free aIF2γ. The structures describe the different states of aIF2γ and demonstrate the conformational transitions that take place in the aIF2γ `life cycle'.

Fragment optimization and elaboration strategies - the discovery of two lead series of PRMT5/MTA inhibitors from five fragment hits.

Here we describe the early stages of a fragment-based lead discovery (FBLD) project for a recently elucidated synthetic lethal target, the PRMT5/MTA complex, for the treatment of MTAP-deleted cancers. Starting with five fragment/PRMT5/MTA X-ray co-crystal structures, we employed a two-phase fragment elaboration process encompassing optimization of fragment hits and subsequent fragment growth to increase potency, assess synthetic tractability, and enable structure-based drug design. Two lead series were identified, one of which led to the discovery of the clinical candidate MRTX1719.

Analyzing the relationship between the cytokine profile of invasive breast carcinoma, its histopathological characteristics and metastasis to regional lymph nodes.

This study was aimed at analyzing the relations of metastasis to regional lymph nodes (RLNs) with histopathological indicators of invasive breast carcinoma of no special type (IC-NST) and its cytokine profile. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were performed to determine concentrations of IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17, IL-18, IL-1ß, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, IFN-γ, G-CSF, GM-CSF, VEGF-A, and MCP-1 in the culture supernatant of IC-NST samples from 48 female patients. Histopathological indicators (degree of tumor cell differentiation, mitoses, and others) and ER, PR, Her2/neu, Ki-67, and CD34 expression levels were determined. By means of three types of neural network models, it was shown that for different parameters of the output layer, different groups of parameters are involved that have predictive value regarding metastasis to RLNs. As a result of multi-dimensional cluster analysis, three clusters were formed with different cytokines profiles of IC-NST. Different correlations between indicators of cytokine production by IC-NST and its histopathological parameters were revealed in groups with different cytokine profiles. It was shown that at simultaneous evaluation of the production of even two cytokines, the importance of which relationship with metastasis was revealed by neural network modeling, can increase the probability of determining the presence of metastasis in the RLNs.

Kinetic mechanism of Na+-coupled aspartate transport catalyzed by GltTk.

It is well-established that the secondary active transporters GltTk and GltPh catalyze coupled uptake of aspartate and three sodium ions, but insight in the kinetic mechanism of transport is fragmentary. Here, we systematically measured aspartate uptake rates in proteoliposomes containing purified GltTk, and derived the rate equation for a mechanism in which two sodium ions bind before and another after aspartate. Re-analysis of existing data on GltPh using this equation allowed for determination of the turnover number (0.14 s-1), without the need for error-prone protein quantification. To overcome the complication that purified transporters may adopt right-side-out or inside-out membrane orientations upon reconstitution, thereby confounding the kinetic analysis, we employed a rapid method using synthetic nanobodies to inactivate one population. Oppositely oriented GltTk proteins showed the same transport kinetics, consistent with the use of an identical gating element on both sides of the membrane. Our work underlines the value of bona fide transport experiments to reveal mechanistic features of Na+-aspartate symport that cannot be observed in detergent solution. Combined with previous pre-equilibrium binding studies, a full kinetic mechanism of structurally characterized aspartate transporters of the SLC1A family is now emerging.

Structural ensemble of a glutamate transporter homologue in lipid nanodisc environment.

Glutamate transporters are cation-coupled secondary active membrane transporters that clear the neurotransmitter L-glutamate from the synaptic cleft. These transporters are homotrimers, with each protomer functioning independently by an elevator-type mechanism, in which a mobile transport domain alternates between inward- and outward-oriented states. Using single-particle cryo-EM we have determined five structures of the glutamate transporter homologue GltTk, a Na+- L-aspartate symporter, embedded in lipid nanodiscs. Dependent on the substrate concentrations used, the protomers of the trimer adopt a variety of asymmetrical conformations, consistent with the independent movement. Six of the 15 resolved protomers are in a hitherto elusive state of the transport cycle in which the inward-facing transporters are loaded with Na+ ions. These structures explain how substrate-leakage is prevented - a strict requirement for coupled transport. The belt protein of the lipid nanodiscs bends around the inward oriented protomers, suggesting that membrane deformations occur during transport.

The Relationship Between Cytokine Production, CSF2RA, and IL1R2 Expression in Mammary Adenocarcinoma, Tumor Histopathological Parameters, and Lymph Node Metastasis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between cytokine production, GM-CSF receptor (CSF2RA), and IL-1 receptor (IL1R2) expression in mammary adenocarcinoma and their association with it histopathological parameters and lymph node metastasis. METHODS: We analyzed tumor biopsy samples (cultured in vitro) from 50 women (aged 43-75) with invasive ductal mammary adenocarcinomas. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method the concentrations of interleukin 2, interleukin 6, interleukin 8, interleukin 10, interleukin 17, interleukin 18, interleukin 1ß, interleukin 1Ra, tumor necrosis factor α, interferon γ, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor A were determined in culture supernatants. The expression of CSF2RA and IL1R2 in tumor biopsy was evaluated by immunohistochemical method. RESULTS: We showed that the "cytokine profile" of a tumor (the ability of tumor cells and its microenvironment to produce different cytokines) is very individual. It has been shown that the features of the cytokine profile of the mammary adenocarcinoma are important for the formation and realization of the metastatic potential of the mammary adenocarcinoma. We found correlations between some histopathological parameters of mammary adenocarcinoma and coefficients KGM-CSF/CSF2RA and KIL-1ß/IL1R2, which are the ratios of concentrations of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin -1ß to expression of CSF2RA and IL1R2, respectively. KGM-CSF/CSF2RA positively correlated with highly differentiated cells, and KIL-1ß/IL1R2 positively correlated with the number of mitoses, poorly differentiated cells, and a number of lymph nodes with metastases. KGM-CSF/CSF2RA positively correlated with the concentrations of interleukin 6, interleukin 8, interleukin 1Ra, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. KIL-1ß/IL1R2 positively correlated with concentrations of interleukin 1ß and interferon γ and negative correlated with the concentrations of vascular endothelial growth factor A and tumor necrosis factor α. It is shown that KIL-1ß/IL1R2 can be considered as a prognostic indicator predicting the probability of mammary adenocarcinoma metastasis to regional lymph nodes. CONCLUSIONS: The ratios of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin 1ß cytokines, produced in tumor, to the expression of CSF2RA and IL1R2 depend on levels of interleukin 6, interleukin 8, tumor necrosis factor α, interferon γ, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor A and are important factors affecting the progression and metastasis of the breast cancer.

Binding and transport of D-aspartate by the glutamate transporter homolog GltTk.

Mammalian glutamate transporters are crucial players in neuronal communication as they perform neurotransmitter reuptake from the synaptic cleft. Besides L-glutamate and L-aspartate, they also recognize D-aspartate, which might participate in mammalian neurotransmission and/or neuromodulation. Much of the mechanistic insight in glutamate transport comes from studies of the archeal homologs GltPh from Pyrococcus horikoshii and GltTk from Thermococcus kodakarensis. Here, we show that GltTk transports D-aspartate with identical Na+: substrate coupling stoichiometry as L-aspartate, and that the affinities (Kd and Km) for the two substrates are similar. We determined a crystal structure of GltTk with bound D-aspartate at 2.8 Å resolution. Comparison of the L- and D-aspartate bound GltTk structures revealed that D-aspartate is accommodated with only minor rearrangements in the structure of the binding site. The structure explains how the geometrically different molecules L- and D-aspartate are recognized and transported by the protein in the same way.

VEGF-R2 and TNF-R1 expression and cytokine production by samples of mammary adenocarcinomas and correlations with histopathological parameters of these malignant tumors.

Currently, the role of cytokines in the tumor progression, including breast cancer, is universally recognized. At the same time, there are still many questions concerning the role of individual cytokines and receptors for cytokines in various morphogenetic processes underlying the tumor progression. The objective of this work was to study cytokine production and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-R2 and VEGF-R1 expression by mammary adenocarcinoma (MAC) and the correlations with histopathological parameters of malignant tumors. The object of the study was cultured tumor biopsy samples from 47 women aged 43-75 years with invasive ductal carcinoma, which was classified as grade II-III adenocarcinoma. It was shown that the cytokine profiles of the supernatants of MAC samples from patients differ greatly. A correlation between the levels of VEGF-R2 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-R1 expression was observed. Correlations were also revealed during analysis of the relations of histopathological MAC indicators with KVEGF-R2/VEGF-A and KTNF-R1/TNF-α coefficients, which are equal, respectively, to the ratio of expression values of receptors VEGF-R2 and TNF-R1 to the concentrations of the relevant cytokines (VEGF-A and TNF-α) in the culture supernatants of the same MAC samples. A direct correlation was identified between KVEGF-R/VEGF-A and some histopathological MAC characteristics: proportion of cells undergoing mitosis or pathological mitosis in MAC and poorly differentiated cells. KVEGF-R2/VEGF-A directly correlated with the concentration in supernatant interleukin (IL)-18 and interferon (IFN)-γ. KTNF-R1/TNF-α was inversely correlated with the concentration in supernatant of IL-1Ra, IL-8, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). The data obtained show that the high-level production of IL-18 and IL-1ß by MAC, overexpression of VEGF-R2 in tumor (at relatively low VEGF-A production), and the high level of IFN-γ production are attributed factors contributing to the formation of a population of low-grade cells in the tumor. The factors regulating the population of moderately differentiated cells in the tumor are referred to as IL-1Ra, IL-8, and GM-CSF.

Analysis of the quality of crystallographic data and the limitations of structural models.

Crystal structures provide visual models of biological macromolecules, which are widely used to interpret data from functional studies and generate new mechanistic hypotheses. Because the quality of the collected x-ray diffraction data directly affects the reliability of the structural model, it is essential that the limitations of the models are carefully taken into account when making interpretations. Here we use the available crystal structures of members of the glutamate transporter family to illustrate the importance of inspecting the data that underlie the structural models. Crystal structures of glutamate transporters in multiple different conformations have been solved, but most structures were determined at relatively low resolution, with deposited models based on crystallographic data of moderate quality. We use these examples to demonstrate the extent to which mechanistic interpretations can be made safely.

Cytokine production in mammary adenocarcinoma and its microenvironmental cells in patients with or without metastases in regional lymph nodes.

In recent years, the concept of formation of a sufficiently autonomous cytokine network in a malignant tumour has emerged. In this regard, the data on the role of this network and its signalling pathways in the process of metastasis are an interesting topic. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro cytokine-producing potential of mammary adenocarcinoma (MAC; and cells of its microenvironment) from patients with or without metastases in regional lymph nodes (LNs). By enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of culture supernatants, we studied the cytokine production by biopsy samples of MAC: spontaneous and stimulated by polyclonal activators (PAs: phytohaemagglutinin, concanavalin A and lipopolysaccharide). The levels of spontaneous production of interleukin (IL)-10 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and the amounts of IL-2, IL-10, G-CSF and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) produced during stimulation by PAs, as well as the index of stimulation by polyclonal activators (ISPA) for IL-2 production, were lower for MAC with LN metastasis than for MAC without LN metastasis. The levels of spontaneous production of IL-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ and the ISPA for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) production were higher for MAC with LN metastasis. There were only three pairwise correlations between the produced cytokines that were specific to MAC with LN metastasis: IL-2 and IFN-γ, IL-6 and GM-CSF, and IL-8 and GM-CSF. There were 10 pairwise correlations between the produced cytokines that were specific to nonmetastasising MAC: IL-6 and IL-10, IL-6 and MCP-1, IL-8 and IL-10, IL-8 and MCP-1, IL-10 and G-CSF, IL-10 and MCP-1, IFN-γ and MCP-1, MCP-1 and G-CSF, G-CSF and IL-1Ra, and GM-CSF and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Our data indicate that metastatic tumours show desynchronisation of many pathways of induction and synthesis of cytokines that are characteristic of nonmetastatic tumours.

A general mechanism of ribosome dimerization revealed by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy.

Bacteria downregulate their ribosomal activity through dimerization of 70S ribosomes, yielding inactive 100S complexes. In Escherichia coli, dimerization is mediated by the hibernation promotion factor (HPF) and ribosome modulation factor. Here we report the cryo-electron microscopy study on 100S ribosomes from Lactococcus lactis and a dimerization mechanism involving a single protein: HPFlong. The N-terminal domain of HPFlong binds at the same site as HPF in Escherichia coli 100S ribosomes. Contrary to ribosome modulation factor, the C-terminal domain of HPFlong binds exactly at the dimer interface. Furthermore, ribosomes from Lactococcus lactis do not undergo conformational changes in the 30S head domains upon binding of HPFlong, and the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and mRNA entrance tunnel remain accessible. Ribosome activity is blocked by HPFlong due to the inhibition of mRNA recognition by the platform binding center. Phylogenetic analysis of HPF proteins suggests that HPFlong-mediated dimerization is a widespread mechanism of ribosome hibernation in bacteria.When bacteria enter the stationary growth phase, protein translation is suppressed via the dimerization of 70S ribosomes into inactive complexes. Here the authors provide a structural basis for how the dual domain hibernation promotion factor promotes ribosome dimerization and hibernation in bacteria.

Water clusters in the nucleotide-binding pocket of the protein aIF2γ from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus: Proton transmission.

In Archaea and Eukaryotes, the binding of Met-tRNAi(Met) to the P-site of the ribosome is mediated by translation initiation factor 2 (a/eIF2) which consists of three subunits: α, ß and γ. Here, we present the high-resolution structure of intact aIF2γ from Sulfolobus solfataricus (SsoIF2γ) in complex with GTP analog, GDPCP. The comparison of the nucleotide-binding pockets in this structure and in the structure of the ribosome-bound form of EF-Tu reveals their close conformation similarity. The nucleotide-binding pocket conformation observed in this structure could be consider as corresponding to intermediate conformation of EF-Tu nucleotide-binding pocket in its transition from the GTP-bound form to the GDP-bound one. Three clusters of well defined water molecules are associated with amino acid residues of the SsoIF2γ nucleotide-binding pocket and stabilize its conformation. We suppose that two water bridges between the oxygen atoms of the GTP γ-phosphate and negatively charged residues of the pocket can serve as ways to transmit protons arising from the catalytic reaction.

Four translation initiation pathways employed by the leaderless mRNA in eukaryotes.

mRNAs lacking 5' untranslated regions (leaderless mRNAs) are molecular relics of an ancient translation initiation pathway. Nevertheless, they still represent a significant portion of transcriptome in some taxons, including a number of eukaryotic species. In bacteria and archaea, the leaderless mRNAs can bind non-dissociated 70 S ribosomes and initiate translation without protein initiation factors involved. Here we use the Fleeting mRNA Transfection technique (FLERT) to show that translation of a leaderless reporter mRNA is resistant to conditions when eIF2 and eIF4F, two key eukaryotic translation initiation factors, are inactivated in mammalian cells. We report an unconventional translation initiation pathway utilized by the leaderless mRNA in vitro, in addition to the previously described 80S-, eIF2-, or eIF2D-mediated modes. This mechanism is a bacterial-like eIF5B/IF2-assisted initiation that has only been reported for hepatitis C virus-like internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs). Therefore, the leaderless mRNA is able to take any of four different translation initiation pathways in eukaryotes.

Binding of the 5'-Triphosphate End of mRNA to the γ-Subunit of Translation Initiation Factor 2 of the Crenarchaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus.

The heterotrimeric archaeal IF2 orthologue of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 consists of the α-subunit, ß-subunit and γ-subunit. Previous studies showed that the γ-subunit of aIF2, besides its central role in Met-tRNAi binding, has an additional function: it binds to the 5'-triphosphorylated end of mRNA and protects its 5'-part from degradation. Competition studies with nucleotides and mRNA, as well as structural and kinetic analyses of aIF2γ mutants, strongly implicate the canonical GTP/GDP-binding pocket in binding to the 5'-triphosphate end of mRNAs. The biological implication of these findings is being discussed.

The Heptameric SmAP1 and SmAP2 Proteins of the Crenarchaeon Sulfolobus Solfataricus Bind to Common and Distinct RNA Targets.

Sm and Sm-like proteins represent an evolutionarily conserved family with key roles in RNA metabolism. Sm-based regulation is diverse and can range in scope from eukaryotic mRNA splicing to bacterial quorum sensing, with at least one step in these processes being mediated by an RNA-associated molecular assembly built on Sm proteins. Despite the availability of several 3D-structures of Sm-like archaeal proteins (SmAPs), their function has remained elusive. The aim of this study was to shed light on the function of SmAP1 and SmAP2 of the crenarchaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus (Sso). Using co-purification followed by RNASeq different classes of non-coding RNAs and mRNAs were identified that co-purified either with both paralogues or solely with Sso-SmAP1 or Sso-SmAP2. The large number of associated intron-containing tRNAs and tRNA/rRNA modifying RNAs may suggest a role of the two Sso-SmAPs in tRNA/rRNA processing. Moreover, the 3D structure of Sso-SmAP2 was elucidated. Like Sso-SmAP1, Sso-SmAP2 forms homoheptamers. The binding of both proteins to distinct RNA substrates is discussed in terms of surface conservation, structural differences in the RNA binding sites and differences in the electrostatic surface potential of the two Sso-SmAP proteins. Taken together, this study may hint to common and different functions of both Sso-SmAPs in Sso RNA metabolism.

Crystal structure of the archaeal translation initiation factor 2 in complex with a GTP analogue and Met-tRNAf(Met.).

Heterotrimeric aIF2αßγ (archaeal homologue of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2) in its GTP-bound form delivers Met-tRNAi(Met) to the small ribosomal subunit. It is known that the heterodimer containing the GTP-bound γ subunit and domain 3 of the α subunit of aIF2 is required for the formation of a stable complex with Met-tRNAi. Here, the crystal structure of an incomplete ternary complex including aIF2αD3γ⋅GDPNP⋅Met-tRNAf(Met) has been solved at 3.2Å resolution. This structure is in good agreement with biochemical and hydroxyl radical probing data. The analysis of the complex shows that despite the structural similarity of aIF2γ and the bacterial translation elongation factor EF-Tu, their modes of tRNA binding are very different. Remarkably, the recently published 5.0-Å-resolution structure of almost the same ternary initiation complex differs dramatically from the structure presented. Reasons for this discrepancy are discussed.