Fusarium graminearum species complex occurrence on soybean and F. graminearum sensu stricto inoculum maintenance on residues in soybean-wheat rotation under field conditions.

AIMS: The aims of this study were to determine the occurrence of Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) on soybean pods, seeds and roots, including rhizoplane, during the period of soybean crop in rotation with wheat and to evaluate the FGSC dynamics on wheat and soybean residues during two soybean growing seasons in rotation with wheat, particularly F. graminearum sensu stricto (FGss). METHODS AND RESULTS: Soybean roots, pods and seeds were analysed during 2012/13 and 2013/14 seasons. The morphological identification of FGSC and mycotoxin analysis was done. Crop residues were taken in both soybean season in wheat rotation and FGss were quantificated by real-time PCR. The results showed that Fusarium species, mainly FGSC, survive in a soybean crop in rotation with wheat. Isolation frequency of these species was higher on soybean pods than on seeds at R6 stage. Deoxynivalenol contamination on soybean seeds was higher in the 2013/14 season in comparison with the 2012/13 season. Low isolation levels of Fusarium species and species that did not belong to FGSC were observed in soybean root, whereas in rhizoplane a higher level was observed. Fusarium species inoculum on residues remained stable during crop succession and the FGSC were recovered from both wheat and soybean residues. Real time PCR data showed a higher DNA concentration of FGss in wheat residues in the first developmental stages of soybean plants, being the levels more significant during 2012/13 season. With regard to soybean residues collected during the wheat growing stages, an increase in DNA from anthesis until wheat harvest was observed. CONCLUSIONS: In a no-till production system, the populations of FGSC can colonize wheat and soybean residues to become an inoculum source. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides new data on the occurrence of FGSC populations in soybean plant and FGss on residues in soybean-wheat rotation, a cultural practice commonly used in in Argentina.

Impact of water activity and temperature on growth and alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether production of Alternaria alternata isolated from soybean.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of water activity (a(w); 0.995, 0.98, 0.96, 0.94, 0.92, and 0.90), temperature (5, 18, 25, and 30 degrees C), incubation time (7 to 35 days), and their interactions on mycelial growth and alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) production. Two Alternaria alternata strains isolated from soybeans in Argentina were grown on 2% soybean extract agar. Maximum growth rates were obtained at the highest a(w) (0.995) and 25 degrees C, with growth decreasing as the water availability of the medium was reduced. Maximum amount of AOH was produced at 0.98 a(w) and 25 degrees C for both strains. Maximum AME production was obtained for both strains at 30 degrees C but different a(w) values, 0.92 and 0.94, for the strains RC 21 and RC 39, respectively. The concentrations of both toxins varied considerably depending on the a(w) and temperature interactions assayed. The two metabolites were produced from 5 to 30 degrees C and at a(w) values of 0.92 to 0.995. Although at 5 and 18 degrees C little mycotoxin was produced at a(w) lower than 0.94. Two-dimensional profiles of a(w) by temperature interactions were developed from these data to identify areas where conditions indicate a significant risk from AOH and AME accumulation on soybeans. All the conditions of a(w) and temperature that resulted in maximum production of both toxins are those found during soybean development in the field. Thus, field conditions are likely to be conducive to optimum A. alternata growth and toxin production.

Effect of environmental factors on tenuazonic acid production by Alternaria alternata on soybean-based media.

AIMS: To determine the effects of water activity (a(W); 0.995-0.90), temperature (5, 18, 25 and 30 degrees C), time of incubation (7-35 days) and their interactions on tenuazonic acid (TA) production on 2% soybean-based agar by two Alternaria alternata strains isolated from soybean in Argentina. METHODS AND RESULTS: TA production by two isolates of A. alternata was examined under interacting conditions of a(W), temperature and time of incubation on 2% soybean-based agar. Maximum TA production was obtained for both strains at 0.98 a(W), but at 30 and 25 degrees C for the strains for RC 21 and RC 39, respectively. The toxin concentration varied considerably depending on a(W), temperature, incubation time and strain interactions. TA was produced over the temperature range from 5 to 30 degrees C and a(W) range from 0.92 to 0.995, however at 5 and 18 degrees C little TA was produced at a(W) below 0.94. Contour maps were developed from these data to identify areas where conditions indicate a significant risk for TA accumulation. CONCLUSIONS: The optimum and marginal conditions for TA production by A. alternata on soybean-based agar were identified. The results indicated that TA production by A. alternata is favoured by different temperatures in different strains. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Data obtained provide very useful information for predicting the possible risk factors for TA contamination of soybean as the a(W) and temperature range used in this study simulate those occurring during grain ripening. The knowledge of TA production under marginal or sub-optimal temperature and a(W) conditions for growth are relevant as improper storage conditions accompanied by elevated temperature and moisture content in the grain can favour further mycotoxin production and lead to reduction in grain quality.

Workload of official contests, net cost of transport, and metabolic power of Mangalarga Marchador horses of marcha batida or picada gaits.

This study aimed to characterize the maximum heart rate (HR) and the intensity of official marcha contests (OMC) and to compare the cost of transport (COT) and metabolic power (Pmet) of Mangalarga Marchador (MM) horses of marcha batida (MB) and marcha picada (MP) gaits. Twenty-two MM horses participated in this study. The experiment was conducted in 3 phases: 1) maximum effort test (MET), 2) OMC, and 3) standardized marcha test (SMT). To characterize the HR, 19 horses (14 MB and 5 MP) underwent a MET. Of those, 13 (9 MB and 4 MP) were monitored during the OMC, which consisted of 4 stages: marcha, walk, functional trial, and rest. The average heart rate (HR) in each stage of the OMC was related to the HR to determine their relative intensity. The SMT was performed with 14 horses (9 MB and 5 MP), of which 11 had already participated in the previous stages. The COT and Pmet were calculated from the HR values obtained during the SMT. Blood samples were collected to analyze plasma lactate concentration ([Lac]). One-way ANOVA or 1-way repeated-measures ANOVA followed by the Tukey's test ( < 0.05) were used to analyze the results. The average HR was 211 ± 11 and 214 ± 11 beats/min (bpm) for the MB and MP groups, respectively, with no difference ( = 0.7066) between them. The [Lac] increased as a result of the MET ( < 0.05), with no difference between groups ( > 0.05). This indicated that horses of both groups had the same physical fitness levels. The OMC stages defined in our study differed ( < 0.05) regarding the relative intensity of the HR, except for the walk and standing stages, which were similar ( = 0.0875). The MP group presented greater COT ( = 0.0247) and Pmet ( = 0.0193). It can be concluded that the mean HR of MM horses (MB and MP) is 212 ± 11 bpm. The OMC of the MM breed can be characterized as an effort of intermittent and submaximal intensity. In addition, the locomotion of the MB horses is probably more energetically efficient than that of MP horses.

Natural occurrence of alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether in soya beans.

The natural occurrence of alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) in soya beans harvested in Argentina was evaluated. Both toxins were simultaneously detected by using HPLC analysis coupled with a solid phase extraction column clean-up. Characteristics of this in-house method such as accuracy, precision and detection and quantification limits were defined by means of recovery test with spiked soya bean samples. Out of 50 soya bean samples, 60% showed contamination with the mycotoxins analyzed; among them, 16% were only contaminated with AOH and 14% just with AME. Fifteen of the positive samples showed co-occurrence of both mycotoxins analyzed. AOH was detected in concentrations ranging from 25 to 211 ng/g, whereas AME was found in concentrations ranging from 62 to 1,153 ng/g. Although a limited number of samples were evaluated, this is the first report on the natural occurrence of Alternaria toxins in soya beans and is relevant from the point of view of animal public health.

Molecular characterization of Aspergillus section Flavi isolates collected from peanut fields in Argentina using AFLPs.

AIMS: The objectives of this study were: (i) to evaluate genetic relatedness among Aspergillus section Flavi strains isolated from soil and peanut seeds in Argentina; (ii) to determine if AFLP molecular markers could be useful to identify isolates up to species level, and to correlate these markers with the isolates' toxigenic potentials and/or vegetative compatibility group (VCG) affiliations. METHODS AND RESULTS: Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLPs) analysis was applied to compare 82 isolates of Aspergillus section Flavi. Cluster analysis showed a clear separation of A. flavus and A. parasiticus, and comparison of fingerprints revealed several specific markers for each group of isolates. AFLP analysis indicates that no genotypical differences can be established between aflatoxigenic and nonaflatoxigenic producers in both species analysed. In addition, candidate AFLP markers associated with a particular VCG were not found. CONCLUSIONS: There was a concordance between morphological identification and separation up to species level using molecular markers. The findings of specific bands for A. flavus and A. parasiticus may be useful for the design of specific PCR primers in order to differentiate these species and detect them in food. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The present study provides new data on molecular characterization of Aspergillus section Flavi in Argentina.