The effect of age and educational level on the cognitive processes used to comprehend the meaning of pictograms.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Pictograms, designed to be a universal communication system, are often created from several concrete and easily recognizable drawings. Does understanding depend on a logical approach? Or is it the ability to inhibit the concrete sense of each picture that allows access to a higher level of comprehension? (ability to abstract). These executive functions are sensitive to the effects of aging and educational level. The aim of our study was to evaluate the nature of the cognitive processes underlying the meaning of pictograms and to test the effect of aging and educational level. METHODS: We enrolled 19 older adults (60-69 years old) and 63 young adults (20-29 years old). Of these 63 young adults, 43 had a high educational level (Young-High participants), and 20 had a lower educational level (Young-Low participants). Each participant was asked the meaning of 20 pictograms and underwent an assessment of abstraction and logical abilities with WAIS-III test. RESULTS: Older adults had lower pictogram assessment scores and abstraction and logical abilities when compared with young adults. In both groups, abstraction and logical abilities were correlated with the interpretation of pictograms but only abstraction ability remains strongly correlated with pictogram comprehension in the older group after adjustment of sex, age and educational level. Consequently, the poorer performances of older adults to determine the meaning of pictograms could be explained by the decline of abstraction ability in elderly. CONCLUSIONS: Pictograms are not the universal communication system as we formerly thought. Age and educational level may influence the performance in determining the meaning of pictograms.

Encephalopathy induced by levetiracetam in an elderly woman.

Levetiracetam is frequently used in the elderly considering its favorable pharmacological profile, efficacy, and good tolerance. We reported an encephalopathy with levetiracetam in an elderly subject who had no renal failure, no concomitant valproate medication, and no other additional co-morbidities. Levetiracetam should be discontinued when this condition is suspected.

Occurrence of eye movement disorders in motor neuron disease.

The diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) relies on symptoms and signs related to upper and lower motor neuron injury. Preservation of normal ocular motor movements is an important criterion for making this diagnosis as oculomotility pathways are classically spared in ALS. However, some authors report eye disturbances resulting from nuclear and supranuclear ophthalmoplegia in autopsy-proven ALS. Here, we report a case in which eye movement disorders were an early sign associated with a bulbar-onset ALS. The association of progressive ophthalmoplegia, dysexecutive syndrome and automatico-voluntary dissociation of eyelid occlusion suggested a 'progressive supranuclear palsy variant' of ALS caused by a disturbance in the descending frontal projections, even though morphological imaging was normal. Motor neuron disease with eye movement disorders must not be considered as a distinct clinical entity and must not exclude a diagnosis of ALS.

[Language disorders and neurodegenerative pathologies]. / Troubles du langage et pathologies neurodégénératives.

Language disorders in elderly people are not exclusively linked to the vascular pathology. There are many degenerative causes and the different clinical presentations and progression profiles must be known to clinicians. The detection of a language disorder during a "memory consultation" warrants an assessment by a speech therapist, in order to adapt the neuropsychological assessment and to decide on any complementary investigations.

The contributions of metabolomics in the discovery of new therapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) leads to the progressive loss of memory and other cognitive functions. It is the most common form of dementia in the elderly and has become a major public health problem due to the increase in life expectancy. Although the detection of AD is based on several neuropsychological tests, imaging, and biological analyses, none of these biomarkers allows a clear understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the disease, and no efficient treatment is currently available. Metabolomics, which allows the study of biochemical alterations underlying pathological processes, could help to identify these mechanisms, to discover new therapeutic targets, and to monitor the therapeutic response and disease progression. In this review, we have summarized and analyzed the results from a number of studies on metabolomics analyses performed in biological samples originated from the central nervous system, in AD subjects, and in animal models of this disease. This synthesis revealed modified expression of specific metabolites in pathological conditions which allowed the identification of significantly impacted metabolic pathways both in animals and humans, such as the arginine biosynthesis and the alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism. We discuss the potential biochemical mechanisms involved, the extent to which they could impact the specific hallmarks of AD, and the therapeutic approaches which could be proposed as a result.

Follow-up of adults with noncritical COVID-19 two months after symptom onset.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical evolution and predictors of symptom persistence during 2 months' follow-up in adults with noncritical coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). METHODS: We performed descriptive clinical follow-up (day (D) 7, D30 and D60) of 150 patients with noncritical COVID-19 confirmed by real-time reverse transcriptase PCR at Tours University Hospital from 17 March to 3 June 2020, including demographic, clinical and laboratory data collected from the electronic medical records and by phone call. Persisting symptoms were defined by the presence at D30 or D60 of at least one of the following: weight loss ≥5%, severe dyspnoea or asthenia, chest pain, palpitations, anosmia/ageusia, headache, cutaneous signs, arthralgia, myalgia, digestive disorders, fever or sick leave. RESULTS: At D30, 68% (103/150) of patients had at least one symptom; and at D60, 66% (86/130) had symptoms, mainly anosmia/ageusia: 59% (89/150) at symptom onset, 28% (40/150) at D30 and 23% (29/130) at D60. Dyspnoea concerned 36.7% (55/150) patients at D30 and 30% (39/130) at D60. Half of the patients (74/150) at D30 and 40% (52/130) at D60 reported asthenia. Persistent symptoms at D60 were significantly associated with age 40 to 60 years old, hospital admission and abnormal auscultation at symptom onset. At D30, severe COVID-19 and/or dyspnoea at symptom onset were additional factors associated with persistent symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Up to 2 months after symptom onset, two thirds of adults with noncritical COVID-19 had complaints, mainly anosmia/ageusia, dyspnoea or asthenia. A prolonged medical follow-up of patients with COVID-19 seems essential, whatever the initial clinical presentation.

Diabetes Mellitus and Cognition: Pathway Analysis in the MEMENTO Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the role of biomarkers of Alzheimer disease (AD), neurodegeneration, and small vessel disease (SVD) as mediators in the association between diabetes mellitus and cognition. METHODS: The study sample was derived from MEMENTO, a cohort of French adults recruited in memory clinics and screened for either isolated subjective cognitive complaints or mild cognitive impairment. Diabetes was defined based on blood glucose assessment, use of antidiabetic agent, or self-report. We used structural equation modeling to assess whether latent variables of AD pathology (PET mean amyloid uptake, Aß42/Aß40 ratio, and CSF phosphorylated tau), SVD (white matter hyperintensities volume and visual grading), and neurodegeneration (mean cortical thickness, brain parenchymal fraction, hippocampal volume, and mean fluorodeoxyglucose uptake) mediate the association between diabetes and a latent variable of cognition (5 neuropsychological tests), adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: There were 254 (11.1%) participants with diabetes among 2,288 participants (median age 71.6 years; 61.8% women). The association between diabetes and lower cognition was significantly mediated by higher neurodegeneration (standardized indirect effect: -0.061, 95% confidence interval: -0.089, -0.032), but not mediated by SVD and AD markers. Results were similar when considering latent variables of memory or executive functioning. CONCLUSION: In a large clinical cohort in the elderly, diabetes is associated with lower cognition through neurodegeneration, independently of SVD and AD biomarkers.

An automated alert system based on the p-Tau/Tau ratio to quickly inform health professionals upon a suspected case of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

INTRODUCTION: Knowing the risk of potential sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) instrument-contamination is essential in hospitals. We examined the relevance of the p-Tau/Tau ratio to exclude a probable case of sCJD in clinical practice, and we established an alert system to quickly inform health professionals in case of positivity. METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted on 143 cerebrospinal fluid samples from patients suspected for sCJD. The distinction between probable cases of sCJD and other patients was based on clinical, paraclinical and biological (14-3-3, Tau, p-Tau, Aß 1-42) data. From this experience, the health professionals developed an alert system to be implemented upon a suspected case of sCJD. RESULTS: A significant decrease in p-Tau/Tau ratio between sCJD and the other diseases was observed (p < 0 .001). The combined Tau test presented a sensitivity higher than 14-3-3 (100% versus 92.3%, p =0 .006) and an equivalent specificity (90% versus 96.1%). The time required for obtaining results was higher for 14-3-3 due to the centralization of investigations in some laboratories (3 weeks versus 2 h). In the presence of these elements, the triggering of the alert system was based on the p-Tau/Tau ratio. This system involves sending an automatic mail to the hospital department involved in the patient's care and the hospital hygiene team, which oversees the application of the procedures. CONCLUSION: The p-Tau/Tau concentrations present the desired criteria for use in current medical practice to fight against iatrogenic transmission. The alert system confirms a probable case of sCJD instantly to health professionals. Hygiene and sterilization measures can be applied immediately.

Isolated parkinsonism is an atypical presentation of GRN and C9orf72 gene mutations.

INTRODUCTION: A phenotype of isolated parkinsonism mimicking Idiopathic Parkinson's Disease (IPD) is a rare clinical presentation of GRN and C9orf72 mutations, the major genetic causes of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). It still remains controversial if this association is fortuitous or not, and which clinical clues could reliably suggest a genetic FTD etiology in IPD patients. This study aims to describe the clinical characteristics of FTD mutation carriers presenting with IPD phenotype, provide neuropathological evidence of the mutation's causality, and specifically address their "red flags" according to current IPD criteria. METHODS: Seven GRN and C9orf72 carriers with isolated parkinsonism at onset, and three patients from the literature were included in this study. To allow better delineation of their phenotype, the presence of supportive, exclusion and "red flag" features from MDS criteria were analyzed for each case. RESULTS: Amongst the ten patients (5 GRN, 5 C9orf72), seven fulfilled probable IPD criteria during all the disease course, while behavioral/language or motoneuron dysfunctions occurred later in three. Disease duration was longer and dopa-responsiveness was more sustained in C9orf72 than in GRN carriers. Subtle motor features, cognitive/behavioral changes, family history of dementia/ALS were suggestive clues for a genetic diagnosis. Importantly, neuropathological examination in one patient revealed typical TDP-43-inclusions without alpha-synucleinopathy, thus demonstrating the causal link between FTD mutations, TDP-43-pathology and PD phenotype. CONCLUSION: We showed that, altogether, family history of early-onset dementia/ALS, the presence of cognitive/behavioral dysfunction and subtle motor characteristics are atypical features frequently present in the parkinsonian presentations of GRN and C9orf72 mutations.

What is the clinical impact of cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers on final diagnosis and management in patients with mild cognitive impairment in clinical practice? Results from a nation-wide prospective survey in France.

OBJECTIVES: New diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer's disease (AD) include cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers that allow diagnosis at the stage of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, the impact of CSF biomarkers in MCI populations in clinical practice has been poorly evaluated. The objective of this study is to assess the use and impact in clinical practice of AD CSF biomarkers in French memory clinics. DESIGN: We performed a nation-wide, prospective survey between March 2012 and September 2014. Data over the same period was extracted from the French National Database (Banque Nationale Alzheimer, BNA) and compared with the results of the survey. SETTING: 29 secondary and tertiary memory clinics in France. PARTICIPANTS: Clinicians prescribing lumbar puncture (LP) in order to measure AD CSF biomarkers. Clinicians completed a two-part questionnaire for each of their patients undergoing LP. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Assessment of diagnosis, level of confidence before and after CSF biomarkers and impact on management in patients who underwent LP for CSF AD biomarkers in clinical routine. RESULTS: 977 questionnaires were completed, of which 61 were excluded because of unknown initial/final diagnosis or non-contributory CSF results. Of 916 patients reported, 153 (16.7%) had MCI as the initial diagnosis, of which 51 (33.3%) displayed an AD profile. CSF biomarkers resulted in a change in diagnosis in 44 patients (28.8%). Confidence level significantly increased after LP (8.3±1.4vs 6.73±1.18, p<0.0001), and CSF results modified management in 71/156 patients (46.4%), including 36 (23.5%) enrolled in clinical trials. Comparison of change in diagnosis with the BNA population revealed no difference (32.24%, p=0.4). CONCLUSION: This nation-wide survey, reflecting clinical practice in French memory clinics, describes the impact of CSF AD biomarkers in patients with MCI in clinical practice.

Hedonic Assessment of Odors: A Comparison of Two Sensory Scales for Use with Alzheimer's Disease Patients and Elderly Individuals.

BACKGROUND: Several clinical studies concerning the olfactory function of patients with cognitive impairment have used sensory scales to investigate hedonic perception. However, no study has focused on the choice of the most appropriate sensory hedonic scale for the individuals with neurodegenerative disorders or other psychiatric diseases involving cognitive deficits. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) to use two hedonic scales (category scale and linear scale) and compare their discriminatory capacity, repeatability, and ease of use. This should allow us to identify the most appropriate hedonic scale for patients with AD. METHODS: We recruited 18 patients with mild to moderate AD, and 20 healthy volunteers matched for gender, age, smoking status, and educational level. The participants underwent a clinical assessment and hedonic evaluation of three odorants (pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral), using a five-point category scale and a 10-cm linear scale with a marked mid-point. RESULTS: AD patients were able to use hedonic scales as well as paired healthy elderly subjects. The linear scale performed slightly better in terms of ease of use for both patients and healthy controls and discriminatory capacity for AD patients. The results for AD patients and controls with both scales were repeatable. CONCLUSION: The linear scale may be more appropriate for AD patients pending further studies involving a larger population of patients, using several odorants.

Amyloid PET Positivity in Different Primary Progressive Aphasia Phenotypes.

PURPOSE: Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a neurological syndrome in which language functions become progressively impaired with relative sparing of memory and other instrumental functions. The pathologic causes of PPA are heterogeneous, but studies suggest that logopenic PPA (LPA) is underpinned by Alzheimer disease (AD) pathology in a high proportion of cases. The purposes of this descriptive and retrospective study were to characterize F-florbetapir PET imaging in a group of patients with a clinical syndrome of PPA, to determine the value of clinical characterization based on language phenotype in predicting the underlying pathology of PPA with F-florbetapir, and to quantify amyloid load in PPA subjects classified as "positive" F-florbetapir scans. Then, we compare the quantification and distribution of F-florbetapir uptake with those of typical, predominantly amnestic AD patients. METHODS: We conducted a PET study with F-florbetapir in a cohort of 12 right-handed patients diagnosed with PPA: 3 patients with semantic-variant PPA, 5 with nonfluent PPA, 1 with LPA, and 3 unclassifiable patients. We evaluated amyloid deposition between APP groups and 11 patients with typical amnestic AD. RESULTS: Among the 12 patients with PPA syndrome, 8 (66.7%) were considered as amyloid positive. One of the 3 patients with semantic-variant PPA was F-florbetapir positive. In contrast, 4 of the 5 nonfluent-variant PPA, 2 of the 3 unclassifiable cases and the single patient with LPA were F-florbetapir positive. A significantly higher F-florbetapir uptake was observed in PPA F-florbetapir-positive patients compared with typical AD patients. This difference was observed in all regions of interest, except in posterior cingulate and temporal cortex. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that F-florbetapir PET may be useful in a routine clinical procedure to improve the reliability of identifying AD pathology in patients with PPA syndrome, with different clinical subtypes of the PPA syndrome.

Limiting Factors of Brain Donation in Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Example of French Memory Clinics.

Postmortem neuropathological examination of the brain is essential in neurodegenerative diseases, to ensure accurate diagnosis, to obtain an a posteriori critical assessment of the adequacy of clinical care, and to validate new biomarkers, but is only rarely performed. The purpose of this study was to assess factors limiting brain donation, such as reluctance of physicians to seek donation consent, opposition from patients and families, and organizational constraints. We conducted a survey across French memory clinics and major neuropathological centers. Few postmortem examinations were performed annually, as less than one third of the centers had performed at least five autopsies, and 41% had performed none. The main limiting factor was the lack of donation requests made by physicians, as half of them never approach patients for brain donation. Reasons for not seeking donation consent often include discomfort broaching the subject and lack of awareness of the medical and scientific benefit of postmortems (77%), organizational constraints (61%), and overestimation of families' negative reaction (51%). Family refusals represented a second major obstacle, and were often caused by misconceptions. Identifying and addressing these biases early could help improve physicians' rate of making requests and the public's awareness about the importance of brain donation.

Utility of CSF biomarkers in psychiatric disorders: a national multicentre prospective study.

BACKGROUND: Affective and psychotic disorders are mental or behavioural patterns resulting in an inability to cope with life's ordinary demands and routines. These conditions can be a prodromal event of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The prevalence of underlying AD lesions in psychiatric diseases is unknown, and it would be helpful to determine them in patients. AD cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers (amyloid ß, tau and phosphorylated tau) have high diagnostic accuracy, both for AD with dementia and to predict incipient AD (mild cognitive impairment due to AD), and they are sometimes used to discriminate psychiatric diseases from AD. Our objective in the present study was to evaluate the clinical utility of CSF biomarkers in a group of patients with psychiatric disease as the main diagnosis. METHODS: In a multicentre prospective study, clinicians filled out an anonymous questionnaire about all of their patients who had undergone CSF biomarker evaluation. Before and after CSF biomarker results were obtained, clinicians provided a diagnosis with their level of confidence and information about the treatment. We included patients with a psychiatric disorder as the initial diagnosis. In a second part of the study conducted retrospectively in a followed subgroup, clinicians detailed the psychiatric history and we classified patients into three categories: (1) psychiatric symptoms associated with AD, (2) dual diagnosis and (3) cognitive decline not linked to a neurodegenerative disorder. RESULTS: Of 957 patients, 69 had an initial diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder. Among these 69 patients, 14 (20.2 %) had a CSF AD profile, 5 (7.2 %) presented with an intermediate CSF profile and 50 (72.4 %) had a non-AD CSF profile. Ultimately, 13 (18.8 %) patients were diagnosed with AD. We show that in the AD group psychiatric symptoms occurred later and the delay between the first psychiatric symptoms and the cognitive decline was shorter. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed that about 20 % of patients with a primary psychiatric disorder diagnosis before undergoing a CSF exploration for cognitive disorder displayed a CSF biomarker AD profile. In memory clinics, it seems important to consider AD as a possible diagnosis before finalizing a diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder.

Precuneus and Cingulate Cortex Atrophy and Hypometabolism in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: MRI and (18)F-FDG PET Quantitative Analysis Using FreeSurfer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare glucose metabolism and atrophy, in the precuneus and cingulate cortex, in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), using FreeSurfer. METHODS: 47 individuals (17 patients with AD, 17 patients with amnestic MCI, and 13 healthy controls (HC)) were included. MRI and PET images using (18)F-FDG (mean injected dose of 185 MBq) were acquired and analyzed using FreeSurfer to define regions of interest in the hippocampus, amygdala, precuneus, and anterior and posterior cingulate cortex. Regional volumes were generated. PET images were registered to the T1-weighted MRI images and regional uptake normalized by cerebellum uptake (SUVr) was measured. RESULTS: Mean posterior cingulate volume was reduced in MCI and AD. SUVr were different between the three groups: mean precuneus SUVr was 1.02 for AD, 1.09 for MCI, and 1.26 for controls (p < 0.05); mean posterior cingulate SUVr was 0.96, 1.06, and 1.22 for AD, MCI, and controls, respectively (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: We found graduated hypometabolism in the posterior cingulate cortex and the precuneus in prodromal AD (MCI) and AD, whereas atrophy was not significant. This suggests that the use of (18)F-FDG in these two regions could be a neurodegenerative biomarker.

[Perception of taste and smell in normal and pathological aging: an update]. / Perception du goût et des odeurs au cours du vieillissement normal et pathologique : mise au point.

The physiological and pathological aging on sense organs is widely studied in the visual and hearing modalities. By contrast, taste and smell changes are widely overlooked. These symptoms are rarely evoked in the elderly and often neglected in clinical practice. Studies in this population are rare and show contradictory results. In this update, we describe the perception of taste and smell in aging. In a first part, we present studies about the aging of smell and taste senses. While taste is remarkably spared during aging, olfaction decreases dramatically since 5th decade of life, frequently resulting in anosmia after 90 years. Numerous causes are evoked: acute conditions (mouth health, medications…) and chronic diseases frequently observed during aging (Alzheimer or Parkinson's diseases) may be responsible of such decline. In the last part, we approach the consequences on geriatric practice, as regards the nutrition of old subjects, including a cognitive approach regarding to perceptual functions and environmental determinants of nutrition. Taste and olfaction disorders should be considered as a geriatric syndrome that geriatricians have to be aware in clinical practice.

The Pattern of Brain Amyloid Load in Posterior Cortical Atrophy Using (18)F-AV45: Is Amyloid the Principal Actor in the Disease?

BACKGROUND: Posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) is characterized by progressive higher-order visuoperceptual dysfunction and praxis declines. This syndrome is related to a number of underlying diseases, including, in most cases, Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aim of this study was to compare the amyloid load with (18)F-AV45 positron emission tomography (PET) between PCA and AD subjects. METHODS: We performed (18)F-AV45 PET, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarker analysis and a neuropsychological assessment in 11 PCA patients and 12 AD patients. RESULTS: The global and regional (18)F-AV45 uptake was similar in the PCA and AD groups. No significant correlation was observed between global (18)F-AV45 uptake and CSF biomarkers or between regional (18)F-AV45 uptake and cognitive and affective symptoms. CONCLUSION: This (18)F-AV45 PET amyloid imaging study showed no specific regional pattern of cortical (18)F-AV45 binding in PCA patients. These results confirm that a distinct clinical phenotype in amnestic AD and PCA is not related to amyloid distribution.

Impact of cerebro-spinal fluid biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease in clinical practice: a multicentric study.

CSF biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease are well validated in clinical research; however, their pragmatic utility in daily practice is still unappreciated. These biomarkers are used in routine practice according to Health Authority Recommendations. In 604 consecutive patients explored for cognitive disorders, questionnaires were prospectively proposed and filled. Before and after CSF biomarker results, clinicians provided a diagnosis and an estimate of their diagnostic confidence. Analysis has compared the frequency of diagnosis before and after CSF biomarker results using the net reclassification improvement (NRI) method. We have evaluated external validity comparing with data of French Bank National of AD (BNA). A total of 561 patients [Alzheimer's disease (AD), n = 253; non-AD, n = 308] were included (mean age, 68.6 years; women, 52 %). Clinically suspected diagnosis and CSF results were concordant in 65.2 % of cases. When clinical hypothesis and biological results were discordant, a reclassification occurred in favour of CSF biomarkers results in 76.9 %. The NRI was 39.5 %. In addition, the results show a statistically significant improvement in clinician confidence for their diagnosis. In comparison with BNA data, patients were younger and more frequently diagnosed with AD. Clinicians tend to heavily rely on the CSF AD biomarkers results and are more confident in their diagnoses using CSF AD biomarkers. Thus, these biomarkers appear as a key tool in clinical practice.