Critical updates in neuroendocrine tumors: Version 9 American Joint Committee on Cancer staging system for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors.

The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system for all cancer sites, including gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEP-NETs), is meant to be dynamic, requiring periodic updates to optimize AJCC staging definitions. This entails the collaboration of experts charged with evaluating new evidence that supports changes to each staging system. GEP-NETs are the second most prevalent neoplasm of gastrointestinal origin after colorectal cancer. Since publication of the AJCC eighth edition, the World Health Organization has updated the classification and separates grade 3 GEP-NETs from poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma. In addition, because of major advancements in diagnostic and therapeutic technologies for GEP-NETs, AJCC version 9 advocates against the use of serum chromogranin A for the diagnosis and monitoring of GEP-NETs. Furthermore, AJCC version 9 recognizes the increasing role of endoscopy and endoscopic resection in the diagnosis and management of NETs, particularly in the stomach, duodenum, and colorectum. Finally, T1NXM0 has been added to stage I in these disease sites as well as in the appendix.

Residual embryonic cells as precursors of a Barrett's-like metaplasia.

Barrett's esophagus is an intestine-like metaplasia and precursor of esophageal adenocarcinoma. Triggered by gastroesophageal reflux disease, the origin of this metaplasia remains unknown. p63-deficient mice, which lack squamous epithelia, may model acid-reflux damage. We show here that p63 null embryos rapidly develop intestine-like metaplasia with gene expression profiles similar to Barrett's metaplasia. We track its source to a unique embryonic epithelium that is normally undermined and replaced by p63-expressing cells. Significantly, we show that a discrete population of these embryonic cells persists in adult mice and humans at the squamocolumnar junction, the source of Barrett's metaplasia. We show that upon programmed damage to the squamous epithelium, these embryonic cells migrate toward adjacent, specialized squamous cells in a process that may recapitulate early Barrett's. Our findings suggest that certain precancerous lesions, such as Barrett's, initiate not from genetic alterations but from competitive interactions between cell lineages driven by opportunity.

Assessment of specificity of dermatopathologic criteria for IgG4-related skin disease.

BACKGROUND: IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD) represents a recently characterized multisystemic fibroinflammatory condition that can manifest a spectrum of skin findings (IgG4-related skin disease; IgG4-RSD). Histopathologic and immunohistochemical criteria have been proposed; however, the specificity of these criteria merits scrutiny given the potential histopathologic overlap of IgG4-RSD and both neoplastic and inflammatory skin conditions featuring lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates (IgG4-RSD mimics). This study sought to assess the specificity of the criteria by quantifying the frequency by which an expanded spectrum of IgG4-RSD mimics meet proposed thresholds. METHODS: Following IRB approval, a total of 69 cases of IgG4-RD mimics, representing 14 different diagnoses featuring plasma cells, were reviewed and analyzed for the following histopathologic and immunohistochemical features: (i) maximum IgG4+ count/high-powered field (hpf) >200; (ii) IgG4/IgG ratio >0.4 averaged over 3 hpfs; (iii) IgG4+ count >10 per hpf. RESULTS: Screening for IgG4-RSD by histopathologic criteria demonstrated the high frequency of lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates, contrasted with the rarity of storiform fibrosis (only one case of erythema elevatum diutinum [EED]) and obliterative phlebitis (0 cases). By immunohistochemical criteria, the analysis revealed that no cases exceeded 200 IgG4+ cells; 13% (9/69) cases demonstrated an IgG4/IgG ratio of >0.4 averaged over 3 hpfs; and 23% (16/69) cases demonstrated a mean IgG4+ count of >10 per hpf. CONCLUSION: Application of proposed IgG4-RSD histopathologic criteria to an expanded spectrum of potential IgG4-RSD mimics (to include cutaneous marginal zone lymphoma, syphilis, necrobiosis lipoidica, lichen sclerosus, ALHE, psoriasis, lymphoplasmacytic plaque, EED, and erosive pustular dermatosis), highlights the relative nonspecificity of lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates contrasted with the stringency of storiform fibrosis and obliterative fibrosis. Furthermore, an IgG4+ cell count of >10 per hpf and an IgG4/IgG ratio of >0.4 are not specific to IgG4-RSD alone. In the appropriate clinical context for IgG4-RSD, histopathologic features still represent the entry threshold for diagnosis consideration, which then allows for further screening by immunohistochemical criteria.

Multi-Institutional Study of Pathologist Reading of the Programmed Cell Death Ligand-1 Combined Positive Score Immunohistochemistry Assay for Gastric or Gastroesophageal Junction Cancer.

The assessment of the expression of programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) using immunohistochemistry (IHC) has been controversial since its introduction. The methods of assessment and the range of assays and platforms contribute to confusion. Perhaps the most challenging aspect of PD-L1 IHC is the combined positive score (CPS) method of interpretation of IHC results. Although the CPS method is prescribed for more indications than any other PD-L1 scoring system, its reproducibility has never been rigorously assessed. In this study, we collected a series of 108 gastric or gastroesophageal junction cancer cases, stained them using the Food and Drug Administration-approved 22C3 assay, scanned them, and then circulated them to 14 pathologists at 13 institutions for the assessment of interpretative concordance for the CPS system. We found that higher cut points (10 or 20) performed better than a CPS of <1 or >1. We used the Observers Needed to Evaluate Subjective Tests algorithm to assess how the CPS system might perform in the real-world setting and found that the cut points of <1 or >1 showed an overall percent agreement of only 30% among the pathologist raters, with a plateau occurring at 8 raters. The raters performed better at higher cut points. However, the best cut point of <20 versus that of >20 was still disappointing, with a plateau at an overall percent agreement of 70% (at 7 raters). Although there is no ground truth for CPS, we compared the score with quantitative messenger RNA measurement and showed no relationship between the score (at any cut point) and messenger RNA amount. In summary, we showed that CPS shows high subjective variability among pathologist readers and is likely to perform poorly in the real-world setting. This system may be the root cause of the poor specificity and relatively low predictive value of IHC companion diagnostic tests for PD-1 axis therapies that use the CPS system.

Surgical Management of G3 Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Grade 3 (G3) gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are rare, aggressive tumors with poor prognosis. The World Health Organization 2017 and 2019 classifications further subdivided G3 NENs into G3 neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) and neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs). Current guidelines favor medical management in most of these patients, and the role of surgical management is not well defined. We performed a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of surgical management versus nonsurgical management for G3 GEP NENs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A PRISMA-compliant systematic review of the MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases (end-of-search date: 16 July 2021) was conducted. Individual patient survival data were reconstructed, and random-effects meta-analyses were performed. RESULTS: Fourteen studies comprising 1810 surgical and 910 nonsurgical patients were systematically reviewed. Publication bias adjusted meta-analysis of 12 studies (1788 surgical and 857 nonsurgical patients) showed increased overall survival (OS) after surgical compared with nonsurgical management for G3 GEP NENs [hazard ratio (HR) 0.40, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31-0.53]. Subgroup meta-analyses showed increased OS after surgical management for both pancreatic and gastrointestinal primary sites separately. In another subgroup meta-analysis of G3 GEP NETs (not NECs), surgical management was associated with increased OS compared with nonsurgical management (HR 0.26, 95% CI 0.11-0.61). CONCLUSIONS: Surgical management of G3 GEP NENs may provide a potential survival benefit in well-selected cases. Further research is needed to define which patients will benefit most from surgical versus nonsurgical management. The current literature is limited by inconsistent reporting of survival outcomes in surgical versus nonsurgical groups, tumor grade, differentiation, primary tumor site, and selection criteria for surgical and nonsurgical management.

Practice patterns for reporting digestive system neuroendocrine neoplasms: results from a large, comprehensive international survey.

AIMS: Criteria for the interpretation of digestive system neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) continue to evolve. Although there are some literature recommendations regarding workup and diagnosis of these lesions, different practice patterns exist among pathologists when signing out these specimens. The aim of this study was to assess practice trends among pathologists worldwide when reporting these neoplasms. METHODS AND RESULTS: We created an online survey with multiple questions pertaining to digestive NENs. The results were analysed based on type of practice setting, years of sign-out experience, and practice location. Respondents included 384 practicing pathologists: 70% academic, 30% private practice; 63% gastrointestinal (GI) pathology-subspecialised, 37% not; 39% North American, 42% European, 19% others; 45% with ≤10 years in practice; 55% with >10 years. Some question responses were chosen by the majority (e.g. 85% use both mitotic count and Ki67 index for grading NENs, 82% complete a synoptic, and Ki67 stain even for small incidental appendiceal neuroendocrine tumours [NETs], and 96% utilize the diagnosis of grade 3 NET). However, some questions showed varying responses, including counting mitotic figures, Ki67 stain interpretation, and pancreatic grade 3 NEN workup. Pathologists also had some variability in interpreting regional metastatic foci of small bowel NETs and in choosing blocks for Ki67 staining in multifocal lesions. CONCLUSION: There existed scenarios wherein practice patterns varied despite recommendations in the literature, and there were also scenarios lacking clear guidelines wherein pathologists used varying judgement. This survey highlights current key grey areas in digestive system NEN evaluation, leading to variation in practice patterns.

Prioritization of Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) Probes for Differentiating Primary Sites of Neuroendocrine Tumors with Machine Learning.

Determining neuroendocrine tumor (NET) primary sites is pivotal for patient care as pancreatic NETs (pNETs) and small bowel NETs (sbNETs) have distinct treatment approaches. The diagnostic power and prioritization of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay biomarkers for establishing primary sites has not been thoroughly investigated using machine learning (ML) techniques. We trained ML models on FISH assay metrics from 85 sbNET and 59 pNET samples for primary site prediction. Exploring multiple methods for imputing missing data, the impute-by-median dataset coupled with a support vector machine model achieved the highest classification accuracy of 93.1% on a held-out test set, with the top importance variables originating from the ERBB2 FISH probe. Due to the greater interpretability of decision tree (DT) models, we fit DT models to ten dataset splits, achieving optimal performance with k-nearest neighbor (KNN) imputed data and a transformation to single categorical biomarker probe variables, with a mean accuracy of 81.4%, on held-out test sets. ERBB2 and MET variables ranked as top-performing features in 9 of 10 DT models and the full dataset model. These findings offer probabilistic guidance for FISH testing, emphasizing the prioritization of the ERBB2, SMAD4, and CDKN2A FISH probes in diagnosing NET primary sites.

Metallothionein immunohistochemistry has high sensitivity and specificity for detection of Wilson disease.

Diagnosis of Wilson disease (WD) can be difficult because of its protean clinical presentations, but early diagnosis is important because effective treatment is available and can prevent disease progression. Similarly, diagnosis of WD on liver biopsy specimens is difficult due to the wide range of histologic appearances. A stain that could help identify WD patients would be of great value. The goal of this study was to use mass spectrometry-based proteomics to identify potential proteins that are differentially expressed in WD compared to controls, and could serve as potential immunohistochemical markers for screening. Several proteins were differentially expressed in WD and immunohistochemical stains for two (metallothionein (MT) and cytochrome C oxidase copper chaperone (COX17)) were tested and compared to other methods of diagnosis in WD including copper staining and quantitative copper assays. We found diffuse metallothionein immunoreactivity in all liver specimens from patients with WD (n = 20); the intensity of the staining was moderate to strong. This staining pattern was distinct from that seen in specimens from the control groups (none of which showed strong, diffuse staining), which included diseases that may be in the clinical or histologic differential of WD (steatohepatitis (n = 51), chronic viral hepatitis (n = 40), autoimmune hepatitis (n = 50), chronic biliary tract disease (n = 42), and normal liver (n = 20)). COX17 immunostain showed no significant difference in expression between the WD and control groups. MT had higher sensitivity than rhodanine for diagnosis of WD. While the quantitative liver copper assays also had high sensitivity, they require more tissue, have a higher cost, longer turnaround time, and are less widely available than an immunohistochemical stain. We conclude that MT IHC is a sensitive immunohistochemical stain for the diagnosis of WD that could be widely deployed as a screening tool for liver biopsies in which WD is in the clinical or histologic differential diagnosis.

Is There a Role for Surgical Resection of Grade 3 Neuroendocrine Neoplasms?

BACKGROUND: Grade 3 (G3) gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are aggressive tumors with poor survival outcomes for which medical management is generally recommended. This study sought to evaluate outcomes of surgically treated G3 GEP-NEN patients. METHODS: A single-institutional prospective NEN database was reviewed. Patients with G3 GEP-NENs based on World Health Organization (WHO) 2019 definitions included well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors (G3NET) and poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas (G3NEC). Clinicopathologic factors were compared between groups. Overall survival from G3 diagnosis was assessed by the Kaplan-Meier method. RESULTS: Surgical resection was performed for 463 patients (211 G1, 208 G2, 44 G3). Most had metastatic disease at presentation (54% G1, 69% G2, 91% G3; p < 0.001). The G3 cohort included 39 G3NETs and 5 G3NECs, 22 of pancreatic and 22 of midgut origin. Median overall survival (mOS; in months) was 268.1 for G1NETs, 129.9 for G2NETs, 50.5 for G3NETs, and 28.5 for G3NECs (p < 0.001). Over the same period, 31 G3 patients (12 G3NETs, 19 G3NECs) were treated non-surgically, with mOS of 19.0 for G3NETs and 12.4 for G3NECs. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical resection of G3 GEP-NENs remains controversial due to poor prognosis, and surgical series are rare. This large, single-institutional study found significantly lower mOS in patients with resected G3NENs than those with G1/G2 tumors, reflecting more aggressive tumor biology and a higher proportion with metastatic disease. The mOS for resected G3NETs and G3NECs exceeded historical non-surgical G3NEN series (mOS 11-19 months), suggesting surgery should be considered in carefully selected patients with G3NENs, especially those with well-differentiated tumors.

Management of Duodenal Neuroendocrine Tumors: Surgical versus Endoscopic Mucosal Resection.

BACKGROUND: Management of duodenal neuroendocrine tumors (DNETs) is not standardized, with smaller lesions (< 1-2 cm) generally treated by endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and larger DNETs by surgical resection (SR). This study reviewed how patients were selected for treatment and compared outcomes. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with DNETs undergoing resection were identified through institutional databases, and clinicopathologic data recorded. χ2 and Wilcoxon tests compared variables. Survival was determined by Kaplan-Meier, and Cox regression tested association with survival. RESULTS: Among 104 patients, 64 underwent EMR and 40 had SR. Patients selected for SR had larger tumor size, younger age, and higher T, N, and M stage. There was no difference in progression-free (PFS) or overall survival (OS) between SR and EMR. In 1-2 cm DNETs, there was no difference in PFS between SR and EMR [median not reached (NR), P = 0.1]; however, longer OS was seen in SR (median NR versus 112 months, P = 0.03). In 1-2 cm DNETs, SR patients were more likely to be node-positive and younger. After adjustment for age, resection method did not correlate with survival. Comparison of surgically resected DNETs versus jejunoileal NETs revealed longer PFS (median NR versus 73 months, P < 0.001) and OS (median NR versus 119 months, P = 0.004) DISCUSSION: In 1-2 cm DNETs, there was no difference in survival between EMR and SR after adjustment for age. Recurrences could be salvaged, suggesting that EMR is a reasonable strategy. Compared with jejunoileal NETs, DNETs treated by SR had improved PFS and OS.

It Is Time to Rethink Biomarkers for Surveillance of Small Bowel Neuroendocrine Tumors.

BACKGROUND: Tumor biomarkers (TBMs) reflect disease burden and correlate with survival for small bowel neuroendocrine tumors (SBNETs). This study sought to determine the performance of chromogranin A (CgA), pancreastatin (PST), neurokinin A (NKA), and serotonin (5HT) during follow-up assessment of resected SBNETs. METHODS: An institutional database identified patients undergoing surgery for SBNETs. Tumor biomarker levels were assessed as categorical (normal vs elevated) and continuous variables for association with progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) via the Kaplan-Meier method with Cox multivariable models adjusted for confounders. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of TBM levels in identifying imaging-confirmed progression were calculated. RESULTS: In 218 patients (44% female, 92% node + , 73% metastatic, 97% G1 or G2), higher levels of CgA, PST, NKA, and 5HT correlated with higher-grade and metastatic disease at presentation (p < 0.05). Elevated pre- and postoperative CgA, PST, and NKA correlated with lower PFS and OS (p < 0.05; median follow-up period, 49.6 months). Normal CgA, PST, and NKA were present in respectively 20.3%, 16.9%, and 72.6% of the patients with progression, whereas elevated levels were present in respectively 69.5%, 24.8%, and 1.3% of the patients without progression. Using TBMs to determine progression showed superiority of PST (78.9% accuracy) over CgA (63.3% accuracy) or CgA and PST together (60.3% accuracy). CONCLUSION: Although specific for progression, NKA was rarely elevated, limiting its usefulness. Pre- and postoperative PST and CgA correlated with disease burden and survival, with PST providing better discrimination of outcomes. During the follow-up period, use of PST most accurately detected progression. These results suggest that PST should replace CgA for SBNET surveillance.

Diagnostic challenges of focal nodular hyperplasia: interobserver variability, accuracy, and the utility of glutamine synthetase immunohistochemistry.

AIMS: The diagnosis of focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH) and the interpretation of glutamine synthetase (GS) staining can be challenging on biopsies. We aimed to evaluate the reproducibility of needle biopsy diagnosis of FNH, the effect of GS immunohistochemistry on FNH diagnosis, and which histological features are most useful for the diagnosis of FNH. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study included virtual needle biopsies generated from 75 resection specimens (30 FNHs, 15 hepatocellular adenomas, 15 hepatocellular carcinomas, and 15 non-lesional liver specimens). Pathologists were reasonably accurate (83.1%) in the diagnosis of FNH with haematoxylin and eosin alone. Ductular reaction and nodularity had the highest sensitivity for a diagnosis of FNH (88.1% and 82.2%, respectively), whereas central scar was the most specific feature (90.6%). The presence of two or more of the classic histological features had 89.6% sensitivity and 86.2% specificity for a diagnosis of FNH. Diagnostic accuracy was significantly higher with the addition of a GS stain. A map-like GS staining pattern was highly specific (99.3%) for FNH. However, GS staining was interpreted as non-map-like in 14.4% of reviews of true FNH cases, and overall interobserver agreement for interpretation of the GS staining pattern was only moderate (kappa = 0.42). CONCLUSIONS: Pathologists are reasonably accurate in the diagnosis of FNH on virtual biopsies, and GS staining improves accuracy. However, a subset of FNH cases remain challenging. Steatosis and a pseudo-map-like GS staining pattern were associated with increased difficulty. Therefore, although a map-like GS staining pattern is useful for confirmation of a diagnosis, the lack of a map-like GS staining pattern on needle biopsy does not necessarily exclude a diagnosis of FNH.

Presacral neuroendocrine tumors associated with the Currarino syndrome.

Currarino syndrome (CS) is an autosomal dominant syndrome caused by mutations in MNX1 and characterized by anorectal abnormalities, partial sacral agenesis, and presacral masses. The presacral masses are typically benign; however, malignant degeneration can occur, and presacral neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) have been reported in six cases. We report three individuals from two families affected by CS in which multiple individuals developed presacral NETs. The first family, 491, had six members with features of CS, including two siblings who presented with presacral, Grade 2 NETs, one of which had metastasized to bone and lymph nodes. A germline c.874C>T (p.Arg292Trp) mutation was found in a highly conserved region of MNX1 in three affected members who underwent sequencing. A second somatic variant/deletion in MNX1 was not detected in either patient's tumor. In the second family, 342, the proband presented with an incidentally discovered presacral NET. The proband's father had previously undergone resection of a presacral NET, and so genetic testing was performed, which did not reveal an MNX1 mutation or copy number variants. The lack of a second, somatic mutation in the tumors from family 491 argues against MNX1 acting as a tumor suppressor, and the absence of a germline MNX1 mutation in family 342 suggests that other genetic and anatomic factors contribute to the development of presacral NETs. These cases highlight the variable presentation of CS, and the potential for malignancy in these patients.

The path to a better biomarker: application of a risk management framework for the implementation of PD-L1 and TILs as immuno-oncology biomarkers in breast cancer clinical trials and daily practice.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies targeting PD-1/PD-L1 are now the standard of care in oncology across several hematologic and solid tumor types, including triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Patients with metastatic or locally advanced TNBC with PD-L1 expression on immune cells occupying ≥1% of tumor area demonstrated survival benefit with the addition of atezolizumab to nab-paclitaxel. However, concerns regarding variability between immunohistochemical PD-L1 assay performance and inter-reader reproducibility have been raised. High tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) have also been associated with response to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in patients with breast cancer (BC). TILs can be easily assessed on hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides and have shown reliable inter-reader reproducibility. As an established prognostic factor in early stage TNBC, TILs are soon anticipated to be reported in daily practice in many pathology laboratories worldwide. Because TILs and PD-L1 are parts of an immunological spectrum in BC, we propose the systematic implementation of combined PD-L1 and TIL analyses as a more comprehensive immuno-oncological biomarker for patient selection for PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition-based therapy in patients with BC. Although practical and regulatory considerations differ by jurisdiction, the pathology community has the responsibility to patients to implement assays that lead to optimal patient selection. We propose herewith a risk-management framework that may help mitigate the risks of suboptimal patient selection for immuno-therapeutic approaches in clinical trials and daily practice based on combined TILs/PD-L1 assessment in BC. © 2020 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Prospective multi-institutional evaluation of pathologist assessment of PD-L1 assays for patient selection in triple negative breast cancer.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the PD-L1 immunohistochemical assay, SP142, as a companion test to determine eligibility for atezolizumab therapy in patients with advanced triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) but data in lung cancer studies suggest the assay suffers from poor reproducibility. We sought to evaluate reproducibility and concordance in PD-L1 scoring across multiple pathologists. Full TNBC sections were stained with SP142 and SP263 assays and interpreted for percentage (%) immune cell (IC) staining by 19 pathologists from 14 academic institutions. Proportion of PD-L1 positive cases (defined as ≥1% IC) was determined for each assay as well as concordance across observers. We utilized a new method we call Observers Needed to Evaluate Subjective Tests (ONEST) to determine the minimum number of evaluators needed to estimate concordance between large numbers of readers, as occurs in the real-world setting. PD-L1 was interpreted as positive with the SP142 assay in an average 58% of cases compared with 78% with SP263 (p < 0.0001). IC positive continuous scores ranged from 1 to 95% (mean = 20%) and 1 to 90% (mean = 10%) for SP263 and SP142, respectively. With SP142, 26 cases (38%) showed complete two category (<1% vs. ≥1%) concordance; with SP263, 38 cases (50%) showed complete agreement. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for two category scoring of SP263 and SP142 was 0.513 and 0.560. ONEST plots showed decreasing overall percent agreement (OPA) as observer number increased, reaching a low plateau of 0.46 at ten observers for SP263 and 0.41 at eight observers for SP142. IC scoring with both assays showed poor reproducibility across multiple pathologists with ONEST analysis suggesting more than half of pathologists will disagree about IC scores. This could lead to many patients either receiving atezolizumab when they are unlikely to benefit, or not receiving atezolizumab when they may benefit.

SATB2 in neuroendocrine neoplasms: strong expression is restricted to well-differentiated tumours of lower gastrointestinal tract origin and is most frequent in Merkel cell carcinoma among poorly differentiated carcinomas.

AIMS: Special AT-rich sequence-binding protein 2 (SATB2) is a transcriptional regulator with critical roles in brain, craniofacial and skeletal development. It has emerged as a key marker of lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract columnar epithelial and osteoblastic differentiation. Transcription factor immunohistochemistry is useful in assigning site of origin in well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumours (NETs), and has had a limited role in poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs). This study sought to evaluate the role of SATB2 in assigning site of origin in neuroendocrine epithelial neoplasms. METHODS AND RESULTS: Tissue microarrays were constructed from the following: 317 NETs (37 thyroid, 46 lung, 16 stomach, 12 duodenum, 70 pancreas, 106 jejunoileum, 24 appendix, and six rectosigmoid), 44 phaeochromocytomas/paragangliomas, and 79 NECs (29 Merkel cell, 30 lung, and 20 extrapulmonary visceral); nine appendiceal and 19 rectal NETs were examined in whole sections. SATB2 immunohistochemistry was scored for extent (%) and intensity (0-3+), with an H-score being calculated. SATB2 was expressed by 96% of rectosigmoid NETs, 79% of appendiceal NETs, and only 7% of other well-differentiated neoplasms (P < 0.0001). Expression in lower GI tract NETs (median H-score of 255) was stronger than in other positive tumours (median H-score of 7) (P < 0.0001). Any SATB2 expression was 86% sensitive/93% specific for lower GI tract origin. SATB2 was expressed by 79% of Merkel cell carcinomas (median H-score of 300), 33% of lung NECs (median H-score of 23), and 60% of extrapulmonary visceral NECs (median H-score of 110), with stronger expression in Merkel cell carcinoma (P < 0.001). At an H-score cutoff of ≥150, SATB2 was 69% sensitive/90% specific for Merkel cell carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS: SATB2 is frequently and strongly expressed by lower GI tract NETs; we have adopted it as our rectal NET marker. Relatively frequent and strong expression in Merkel cell carcinoma may have value in assigning NEC site of origin.

An Algorithmic Immunohistochemical Approach to Define Tumor Type and Assign Site of Origin.

Immunohistochemistry represents an indispensable complement to an epidemiology and morphology-driven approach to tumor diagnosis and site of origin assignment. This review reflects the state of my current practice, based on 15-years' experience in Pathology and a deep-dive into the literature, always striving to be better equipped to answer the age old questions, "What is it, and where is it from?" The tables and figures in this manuscript are the ones I "pull up on the computer" when I am teaching at the microscope and turn to myself when I am (frequently) stuck. This field is so exciting because I firmly believe that, through the application of next-generation immunohistochemistry, we can provide better answers than ever before. Specific topics covered in this review include (1) broad tumor classification and associated screening markers; (2) the role of cancer epidemiology in determining pretest probability; (3) broad-spectrum epithelial markers; (4) noncanonical expression of broad tumor class screening markers; (5) a morphologic pattern-based approach to poorly to undifferentiated malignant neoplasms; (6) a morphologic and immunohistochemical approach to define 4 main carcinoma types; (7) CK7/CK20 coordinate expression; (8) added value of semiquantitative immunohistochemical stain assessment; algorithmic immunohistochemical approaches to (9) "garden variety" adenocarcinomas presenting in the liver, (10) large polygonal cell adenocarcinomas, (11) the distinction of primary surface ovarian epithelial tumors with mucinous features from metastasis, (12) tumors presenting at alternative anatomic sites, (13) squamous cell carcinoma versus urothelial carcinoma, and neuroendocrine neoplasms, including (14) the distinction of pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma from well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor, site of origin assignment in (15) well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor and (16) poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma, and (17) the distinction of well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor G3 from poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma; it concludes with (18) a discussion of diagnostic considerations in the broad-spectrum keratin/CD45/S-100-"triple-negative" neoplasm.

American Registry of Pathology Expert Opinions: Evaluation of poorly differentiated malignant neoplasms on limited samples - Gastrointestinal mucosal biopsies.

This review reflects a collaboration between the American Registry of Pathology (the publisher of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Fascicles) and Annals of Diagnostic Pathology. It is part of a series of expert recommendations on topics encountered in daily practice. The authors, three pathologists with expertise in gastrointestinal tract pathology and immunohistochemistry, met on 30 July 2019 tasked with developing expert recommendations for evaluating poorly differentiated and undifferentiated malignant neoplasms encountered on mucosal biopsies of the gastrointestinal tract. We focused on esophageal, gastric, small intestinal, colorectal, and anal (i.e., tubal gut) samples. When faced with diagnostic uncertainty on the initial H&E, it is best to begin by trying to assign the broad tumor class with screening markers such as pankeratin, S100 protein or SOX10, and CD20 or CD45. Once a broad tumor class is established, more specific differentiation markers can be pursued (e.g., lineage-restricted transcription factors for adenocarcinoma; p40 for squamous cell carcinoma; chromogranin A and synaptophysin or INSM1 for neuroendocrine neoplasms). Every small biopsy containing tumor should be considered a potential molecular pathology sample; cutting extra unstained slides with this testing in mind is strongly encouraged.

Pathology Characterization and Detection of Human Papillomavirus Type 16 in Rectal Squamous Cell Carcinomas.

Rectal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a rare tumor with unresolved etiology. Human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals and solid organ transplant recipients experience >30-fold and approximately 3-fold elevated rates of rectal SCC, respectively, suggesting immunosuppression plays a role.1 Human immunodeficiency virus-infected homosexual men have >60-fold higher rates of rectal SCC, similar to anal SCC. These patterns, which differ from the more common rectal adenocarcinoma (AdCA), raise the possibility of shared etiology between rectal and anal SCC, with human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) being a likely candidate.2.

Re-Evaluating E-Cadherin and ß-Catenin: A Pan-Cancer Proteomic Approach with an Emphasis on Breast Cancer.

E-cadherin is conventionally considered to be a good prognostic marker in cancer. The loss of E-cadherin is one of the key hallmarks of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, a biological process that promotes cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. Recent evidence has cast doubt on the importance of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in metastasis. The availability of protein-level data in the Cancer Genome Atlas allows for the quantitative analysis of protein and prognosis. The prognostic values of E-cadherin and ß-catenin were revisited across 19 cancer types, and high E-cadherin was found to correlate with good prognosis in most cancers. Conversely, higher E-cadherin and ß-catenin correlated with shorter survival in invasive breast carcinoma. Stratifying breast cancers by histologic subtype revealed that the poor prognosis of E-cadherin and ß-catenin proteins was characteristic of infiltrating ductal, but not lobular, carcinomas. To further corroborate the protein findings and examine cellular localization, immunohistochemistry was used for E-cadherin and ß-catenin in 163 breast patient samples from the Iowa cohort. Most previous studies showing that reduced or absent E-cadherin and ß-catenin was inversely associated with tumor stages in ductal carcinomas were confirmed. Taken together, these results lead us to question the prognostic values of E-cadherin and ß-catenin in ductal carcinomas and indicate a complicated role of E-cadherin and ß-catenin in breast cancer progression.