Scientific discovery in the age of artificial intelligence.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is being increasingly integrated into scientific discovery to augment and accelerate research, helping scientists to generate hypotheses, design experiments, collect and interpret large datasets, and gain insights that might not have been possible using traditional scientific methods alone. Here we examine breakthroughs over the past decade that include self-supervised learning, which allows models to be trained on vast amounts of unlabelled data, and geometric deep learning, which leverages knowledge about the structure of scientific data to enhance model accuracy and efficiency. Generative AI methods can create designs, such as small-molecule drugs and proteins, by analysing diverse data modalities, including images and sequences. We discuss how these methods can help scientists throughout the scientific process and the central issues that remain despite such advances. Both developers and users of AI toolsneed a better understanding of when such approaches need improvement, and challenges posed by poor data quality and stewardship remain. These issues cut across scientific disciplines and require developing foundational algorithmic approaches that can contribute to scientific understanding or acquire it autonomously, making them critical areas of focus for AI innovation.

Responses to Pattern-Violating Visual Stimuli Evolve Differently Over Days in Somata and Distal Apical Dendrites.

Scientists have long conjectured that the neocortex learns patterns in sensory data to generate top-down predictions of upcoming stimuli. In line with this conjecture, different responses to pattern-matching vs pattern-violating visual stimuli have been observed in both spiking and somatic calcium imaging data. However, it remains unknown whether these pattern-violation signals are different between the distal apical dendrites, which are heavily targeted by top-down signals, and the somata, where bottom-up information is primarily integrated. Furthermore, it is unknown how responses to pattern-violating stimuli evolve over time as an animal gains more experience with them. Here, we address these unanswered questions by analyzing responses of individual somata and dendritic branches of layer 2/3 and layer 5 pyramidal neurons tracked over multiple days in primary visual cortex of awake, behaving female and male mice. We use sequences of Gabor patches with patterns in their orientations to create pattern-matching and pattern-violating stimuli, and two-photon calcium imaging to record neuronal responses. Many neurons in both layers show large differences between their responses to pattern-matching and pattern-violating stimuli. Interestingly, these responses evolve in opposite directions in the somata and distal apical dendrites, with somata becoming less sensitive to pattern-violating stimuli and distal apical dendrites more sensitive. These differences between the somata and distal apical dendrites may be important for hierarchical computation of sensory predictions and learning, since these two compartments tend to receive bottom-up and top-down information, respectively.

BigBrain 3D atlas of cortical layers: Cortical and laminar thickness gradients diverge in sensory and motor cortices.

Histological atlases of the cerebral cortex, such as those made famous by Brodmann and von Economo, are invaluable for understanding human brain microstructure and its relationship with functional organization in the brain. However, these existing atlases are limited to small numbers of manually annotated samples from a single cerebral hemisphere, measured from 2D histological sections. We present the first whole-brain quantitative 3D laminar atlas of the human cerebral cortex. It was derived from a 3D histological atlas of the human brain at 20-micrometer isotropic resolution (BigBrain), using a convolutional neural network to segment, automatically, the cortical layers in both hemispheres. Our approach overcomes many of the historical challenges with measurement of histological thickness in 2D, and the resultant laminar atlas provides an unprecedented level of precision and detail. We utilized this BigBrain cortical atlas to test whether previously reported thickness gradients, as measured by MRI in sensory and motor processing cortices, were present in a histological atlas of cortical thickness and which cortical layers were contributing to these gradients. Cortical thickness increased across sensory processing hierarchies, primarily driven by layers III, V, and VI. In contrast, motor-frontal cortices showed the opposite pattern, with decreases in total and pyramidal layer thickness from motor to frontal association cortices. These findings illustrate how this laminar atlas will provide a link between single-neuron morphology, mesoscale cortical layering, macroscopic cortical thickness, and, ultimately, functional neuroanatomy.

CAMAP: Artificial neural networks unveil the role of codon arrangement in modulating MHC-I peptides presentation.

MHC-I associated peptides (MAPs) play a central role in the elimination of virus-infected and neoplastic cells by CD8 T cells. However, accurately predicting the MAP repertoire remains difficult, because only a fraction of the transcriptome generates MAPs. In this study, we investigated whether codon arrangement (usage and placement) regulates MAP biogenesis. We developed an artificial neural network called Codon Arrangement MAP Predictor (CAMAP), predicting MAP presentation solely from mRNA sequences flanking the MAP-coding codons (MCCs), while excluding the MCC per se. CAMAP predictions were significantly more accurate when using original codon sequences than shuffled codon sequences which reflect amino acid usage. Furthermore, predictions were independent of mRNA expression and MAP binding affinity to MHC-I molecules and applied to several cell types and species. Combining MAP ligand scores, transcript expression level and CAMAP scores was particularly useful to increase MAP prediction accuracy. Using an in vitro assay, we showed that varying the synonymous codons in the regions flanking the MCCs (without changing the amino acid sequence) resulted in significant modulation of MAP presentation at the cell surface. Taken together, our results demonstrate the role of codon arrangement in the regulation of MAP presentation and support integration of both translational and post-translational events in predictive algorithms to ameliorate modeling of the immunopeptidome.

RetroGNN: Fast Estimation of Synthesizability for Virtual Screening and De Novo Design by Learning from Slow Retrosynthesis Software.

De novo molecule design algorithms often result in chemically unfeasible or synthetically inaccessible molecules. A natural idea to mitigate this problem is to bias these algorithms toward more easily synthesizable molecules using a proxy score for synthetic accessibility. However, using currently available proxies can still result in highly unrealistic compounds. Here, we propose a novel approach, RetroGNN, to estimate synthesizability. First, we search for routes using synthesis planning software for a large number of random molecules. This information is then used to train a graph neural network to predict the outcome of the synthesis planner given the target molecule, in which the regression task can be used as a synthesizability scorer. We highlight how RetroGNN can be used in generative molecule-discovery pipelines together with other scoring functions. We evaluate our approach on several QSAR-based molecule design benchmarks, for which we find synthesizable molecules with state-of-the-art scores. Compared to the virtual screening of 5 million existing molecules from the ZINC database, using RetroGNNScore with a simple fragment-based de novo design algorithm finds molecules predicted to be more likely to possess the desired activity exponentially faster, while maintaining good druglike properties and being easier to synthesize. Importantly, our deep neural network can successfully filter out hard to synthesize molecules while achieving a 105 times speedup over using retrosynthesis planning software.

Factorized embeddings learns rich and biologically meaningful embedding spaces using factorized tensor decomposition.

MOTIVATION: The recent development of sequencing technologies revolutionized our understanding of the inner workings of the cell as well as the way disease is treated. A single RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) experiment, however, measures tens of thousands of parameters simultaneously. While the results are information rich, data analysis provides a challenge. Dimensionality reduction methods help with this task by extracting patterns from the data by compressing it into compact vector representations. RESULTS: We present the factorized embeddings (FE) model, a self-supervised deep learning algorithm that learns simultaneously, by tensor factorization, gene and sample representation spaces. We ran the model on RNA-Seq data from two large-scale cohorts and observed that the sample representation captures information on single gene and global gene expression patterns. Moreover, we found that the gene representation space was organized such that tissue-specific genes, highly correlated genes as well as genes participating in the same GO terms were grouped. Finally, we compared the vector representation of samples learned by the FE model to other similar models on 49 regression tasks. We report that the representations trained with FE rank first or second in all of the tasks, surpassing, sometimes by a considerable margin, other representations. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: A toy example in the form of a Jupyter Notebook as well as the code and trained embeddings for this project can be found at: https://github.com/TrofimovAssya/FactorizedEmbeddings. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Deep learning.

Deep learning allows computational models that are composed of multiple processing layers to learn representations of data with multiple levels of abstraction. These methods have dramatically improved the state-of-the-art in speech recognition, visual object recognition, object detection and many other domains such as drug discovery and genomics. Deep learning discovers intricate structure in large data sets by using the backpropagation algorithm to indicate how a machine should change its internal parameters that are used to compute the representation in each layer from the representation in the previous layer. Deep convolutional nets have brought about breakthroughs in processing images, video, speech and audio, whereas recurrent nets have shone light on sequential data such as text and speech.

Toward Training Recurrent Neural Networks for Lifelong Learning.

Catastrophic forgetting and capacity saturation are the central challenges of any parametric lifelong learning system. In this work, we study these challenges in the context of sequential supervised learning with an emphasis on recurrent neural networks. To evaluate the models in the lifelong learning setting, we propose a curriculum-based, simple, and intuitive benchmark where the models are trained on tasks with increasing levels of difficulty. To measure the impact of catastrophic forgetting, the model is tested on all the previous tasks as it completes any task. As a step toward developing true lifelong learning systems, we unify gradient episodic memory (a catastrophic forgetting alleviation approach) and Net2Net (a capacity expansion approach). Both models are proposed in the context of feedforward networks, and we evaluate the feasibility of using them for recurrent networks. Evaluation on the proposed benchmark shows that the unified model is more suitable than the constituent models for lifelong learning setting.

Deep convolutional networks for quality assessment of protein folds.

Motivation: The computational prediction of a protein structure from its sequence generally relies on a method to assess the quality of protein models. Most assessment methods rank candidate models using heavily engineered structural features, defined as complex functions of the atomic coordinates. However, very few methods have attempted to learn these features directly from the data. Results: We show that deep convolutional networks can be used to predict the ranking of model structures solely on the basis of their raw three-dimensional atomic densities, without any feature tuning. We develop a deep neural network that performs on par with state-of-the-art algorithms from the literature. The network is trained on decoys from the CASP7 to CASP10 datasets and its performance is tested on the CASP11 dataset. Additional testing on decoys from the CASP12, CAMEO and 3DRobot datasets confirms that the network performs consistently well across a variety of protein structures. While the network learns to assess structural decoys globally and does not rely on any predefined features, it can be analyzed to show that it implicitly identifies regions that deviate from the native structure. Availability and implementation: The code and the datasets are available at https://github.com/lamoureux-lab/3DCNN_MQA. Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Equivalence of Equilibrium Propagation and Recurrent Backpropagation.

Recurrent backpropagation and equilibrium propagation are supervised learning algorithms for fixed-point recurrent neural networks, which differ in their second phase. In the first phase, both algorithms converge to a fixed point that corresponds to the configuration where the prediction is made. In the second phase, equilibrium propagation relaxes to another nearby fixed point corresponding to smaller prediction error, whereas recurrent backpropagation uses a side network to compute error derivatives iteratively. In this work, we establish a close connection between these two algorithms. We show that at every moment in the second phase, the temporal derivatives of the neural activities in equilibrium propagation are equal to the error derivatives computed iteratively by recurrent backpropagation in the side network. This work shows that it is not required to have a side network for the computation of error derivatives and supports the hypothesis that in biological neural networks, temporal derivatives of neural activities may code for error signals.

Gated Orthogonal Recurrent Units: On Learning to Forget.

We present a novel recurrent neural network (RNN)-based model that combines the remembering ability of unitary evolution RNNs with the ability of gated RNNs to effectively forget redundant or irrelevant information in its memory. We achieve this by extending restricted orthogonal evolution RNNs with a gating mechanism similar to gated recurrent unit RNNs with a reset gate and an update gate. Our model is able to outperform long short-term memory, gated recurrent units, and vanilla unitary or orthogonal RNNs on several long-term-dependency benchmark tasks. We empirically show that both orthogonal and unitary RNNs lack the ability to forget. This ability plays an important role in RNNs. We provide competitive results along with an analysis of our model on many natural sequential tasks, including question answering, speech spectrum prediction, character-level language modeling, and synthetic tasks that involve long-term dependencies such as algorithmic, denoising, and copying tasks.

Dynamic Neural Turing Machine with Continuous and Discrete Addressing Schemes.

We extend the neural Turing machine (NTM) model into a dynamic neural Turing machine (D-NTM) by introducing trainable address vectors. This addressing scheme maintains for each memory cell two separate vectors, content and address vectors. This allows the D-NTM to learn a wide variety of location-based addressing strategies, including both linear and nonlinear ones. We implement the D-NTM with both continuous and discrete read and write mechanisms. We investigate the mechanisms and effects of learning to read and write into a memory through experiments on Facebook bAbI tasks using both a feedforward and GRU controller. We provide extensive analysis of our model and compare different variations of neural Turing machines on this task. We show that our model outperforms long short-term memory and NTM variants. We provide further experimental results on the sequential [Formula: see text]MNIST, Stanford Natural Language Inference, associative recall, and copy tasks.

STDP-Compatible Approximation of Backpropagation in an Energy-Based Model.

We show that Langevin Markov chain Monte Carlo inference in an energy-based model with latent variables has the property that the early steps of inference, starting from a stationary point, correspond to propagating error gradients into internal layers, similar to backpropagation. The backpropagated error is with respect to output units that have received an outside driving force pushing them away from the stationary point. Backpropagated error gradients correspond to temporal derivatives with respect to the activation of hidden units. These lead to a weight update proportional to the product of the presynaptic firing rate and the temporal rate of change of the postsynaptic firing rate. Simulations and a theoretical argument suggest that this rate-based update rule is consistent with those associated with spike-timing-dependent plasticity. The ideas presented in this article could be an element of a theory for explaining how brains perform credit assignment in deep hierarchies as efficiently as backpropagation does, with neural computation corresponding to both approximate inference in continuous-valued latent variables and error backpropagation, at the same time.

Conditioning and time representation in long short-term memory networks.

Dopaminergic models based on the temporal-difference learning algorithm usually do not differentiate trace from delay conditioning. Instead, they use a fixed temporal representation of elapsed time since conditioned stimulus onset. Recently, a new model was proposed in which timing is learned within a long short-term memory (LSTM) artificial neural network representing the cerebral cortex (Rivest et al. in J Comput Neurosci 28(1):107-130, 2010). In this paper, that model's ability to reproduce and explain relevant data, as well as its ability to make interesting new predictions, are evaluated. The model reveals a strikingly different temporal representation between trace and delay conditioning since trace conditioning requires working memory to remember the past conditioned stimulus while delay conditioning does not. On the other hand, the model predicts no important difference in DA responses between those two conditions when trained on one conditioning paradigm and tested on the other. The model predicts that in trace conditioning, animal timing starts with the conditioned stimulus offset as opposed to its onset. In classical conditioning, it predicts that if the conditioned stimulus does not disappear after the reward, the animal may expect a second reward. Finally, the last simulation reveals that the buildup of activity of some units in the networks can adapt to new delays by adjusting their rate of integration. Most importantly, the paper shows that it is possible, with the proposed architecture, to acquire discharge patterns similar to those observed in dopaminergic neurons and in the cerebral cortex on those tasks simply by minimizing a predictive cost function.

Regulating advanced artificial agents.

Governance frameworks should address the prospect of AI systems that cannot be safely tested.

Sources of richness and ineffability for phenomenally conscious states.

Conscious states-state that there is something it is like to be in-seem both rich or full of detail and ineffable or hard to fully describe or recall. The problem of ineffability, in particular, is a longstanding issue in philosophy that partly motivates the explanatory gap: the belief that consciousness cannot be reduced to underlying physical processes. Here, we provide an information theoretic dynamical systems perspective on the richness and ineffability of consciousness. In our framework, the richness of conscious experience corresponds to the amount of information in a conscious state and ineffability corresponds to the amount of information lost at different stages of processing. We describe how attractor dynamics in working memory would induce impoverished recollections of our original experiences, how the discrete symbolic nature of language is insufficient for describing the rich and high-dimensional structure of experiences, and how similarity in the cognitive function of two individuals relates to improved communicability of their experiences to each other. While our model may not settle all questions relating to the explanatory gap, it makes progress toward a fully physicalist explanation of the richness and ineffability of conscious experience-two important aspects that seem to be part of what makes qualitative character so puzzling.