The effects of physical activity or sport-based interventions on psychological factors in adults with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Inactivity is a major factor contributing to adverse health in people with intellectual disabilities (IDs). While it is generally agreed that physical activity (PA)/sport-based interventions promote cognitive and social development in the general population, little is known about their specific benefits in adults with ID. The aims of this systematic review were (a) to examine the effects of PA/sport-based interventions on intention, motivation and attitude regarding PA/sport participation in adults with ID and (b) to investigate the influence of these psychological factors on behavioural change (e.g. PA level) and quality of life. METHODS: A systematic review has been conducted searching four electronic databases (i.e. SCOPUS, Web of Science, PubMed and Cochrane Library). Studies were included if written in English, peer reviewed, had primary research data, and measured intention, motivation, attitude, behavioural outcomes or quality of life. RESULTS: Thirteen articles met our inclusion criteria of which 10 explored the effects of PA/sport as part of a multi-component intervention. Most investigated outcomes were exercise self-efficacy and quality of life. Five studies measured exercise self-efficacy, and four of them found significant changes. One study found a significant improvement in quality of life and another study in life satisfaction. We observed lack of sport-based interventions, few data about people with severe ID and limited psychological measures. CONCLUSIONS: Personal and environmental factors are key components of behavioural change. Support of caregivers and individualised instructions may benefit exercise self-efficacy. There is lack of information about the effects of psychological factors on behavioural change and quality of life in adults with ID.

Effects of Fitlight training on cognitive-motor performance in élite judo athletes.

Aims: The aims of this study were to verify if a 5-week cognitive-motor training (CMT) using FitlightsTM induced changes in young adult judo athletes compared to a non-intervention group. Specifically, it was verified if CMT influenced executive functions (EFs), physical fitness and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Additionally, athletes' competitive results were compared between groups. Method: Twenty-seven athletes (14 males and 13 females; age = 19.5 ± 2.0 years) were assigned to the Fitlight (FG) and control (CG) groups which performed 5 weeks of CMT, respectively, including 25 min per day of Fitlight training or traditional judo practice. All participants performed cognitive (flanker task and forward/backward digit span) and fitness tests (counter movement jump, handgrip test, dynamic and isometric chin up). In addition, BDNF was collected by saliva sampling and competitive results after the intervention period were considered. Results: RM-ANOVA showed significant differences in FG for the accuracy of flanker (p = 0.028) and backward digit span (p < 0.001). Moreover, significant differences in FG were found for relative dynamic chin up (p = 0.027) and counter movement jump (p = 0.05). In addition, a significant difference in FG was found for competitive results after the intervention period (p < 0.01).No significant differences were found for BDNF and other cognitive and fitness measures (p > 0.05). Conclusion: A 5-week judo-specific CMT improved EFs and motor performance in élite judo athletes. It seems that CMT with Fitlight™ could be considered an additional support to coaches during the training period.

Effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on post-exercise heart rate variability.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential benefits of cold water immersion (CWI) and active recovery (AR) on blood lactate concentration ([Lac]) and heart rate variability (HRV) indices following high-intensity exercise. 20 male subjects were recruited. On the first visit, an incremental test was performed to determine maximal oxygen consumption and the associated speed (MAS). The remaining 3 visits for the performance of constant velocity exhaustive tests at MAS and different recovery methods (6 min) were separated by 7-day intervals [randomized: CWI, AR or passive recovery (PR)]. The CWI and AR lowered [Lac] (p<0.05) at 11, 13 and 15 min after exercise cessation in comparison to PR. There was a 'time' and 'recovery mode' interaction for 2 HRV indices: standard deviation of normal R-R intervals (SDNN) (partial eta squared=0.114) and natural log of low-frequency power density (lnLF) (partial eta squared=0.090). CWI presented significantly higher SDNN compared to PR at 15 min of recovery (p<0.05). In addition, greater SDNN values were found in CWI vs. AR during the application of recovery interventions, and at 30 and 75 min post-exercise (p<0.05 for all differences). The lnLF during the recovery interventions and at 75 min post-exercise was greater using CWI compared with AR (p<0.05). For square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of differences between adjacent R-R intervals (RMSSD) and natural log of high-frequency power density (lnHF), a moderate effect size was found between CWI and PR during the recovery interventions and at 15 min post-exercise. Our findings show that AR and CWI offer benefits regarding the removal of [Lac] following high-intensity exercise. While limited, CWI results in some improvement in post-exercise cardiac autonomic regulation compared to AR and PR. Further, AR is not recommended if the aim is to accelerate the parasympathetic reactivation.

Development of mu rhythm in infants and preschool children.

Mu rhythm is an idling rhythm that originates in the sensorimotor cortex during rest. The frequency of mu rhythm, which is well established in adults, is 8-12 Hz, whereas the limited results available from children suggest a frequency as low as 5.4 Hz at 6 months of age, which gradually increases to the adult value. Understanding the normal development of mu rhythm has important theoretical and clinical implications since we still know very little about this signal in infants and how it develops with age. We measured mu rhythm over the left hemisphere using a pediatric magnetoencephalography (MEG) system in 25 infants (11-47 weeks), 18 preschool children (2-5 years) and 6 adults (20-39 years) for two 5-min sessions during two intermixed conditions: a rest condition in which the hands were at rest, and a prehension condition in which the subject squeezed a pipette with his/her right hand. In all participants, mu rhythm was present over the frontoparietal area during the rest condition, but was clearly suppressed during the prehension condition. Mu rhythm peak frequency, determined from the amplitude spectra, increased rapidly as a function of age from 2.75 Hz at 11 weeks to 8.25 Hz at 47 weeks (r2 = 0.83). It increased very slowly during the preschool period (3.1 ± 0.9 years; 8.5 ± 0.54 Hz). The frequency in these children was, however, lower than in adults (10.3 ± 1.2 Hz). Our results show a rapid maturation in spontaneous mu rhythm during the first year of life.

Frequency and direction of competitive anger in contact sports.

AIM: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether athletes involved in physical contact sports may interpret their feelings of anger as facilitative of performance, and to examine differences in the interpretation of anger as a function of the type of sport (team vs individual) or the competitive skill level (high vs low). METHODS: A modified version of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory was administered to 100 Italian adult male athletes practicing rugby or individual combat sports (judo, freestyle wrestling, or Greco-Roman wrestling). The questionnaire was intended to measure the frequency and the direction (i.e., the facilitative-debilitative interpretation) of competitive anger. RESULTS: Many athletes engaged in contact sports tended interpret their competitive anger as facilitative of performance rather than debilitative. The type of sport and the athlete's standard level can mediate the individual's interpretation of the effects of anger symptoms upon performance. CONCLUSIONS: Competitors can interpret their anger as helpful to energize behavior and channel physical and mental resources for skill execution. Practitioners should assist athletes in gaining control over anger rather than attempting to suppress it.

Functional coupling of parietal α rhythms is enhanced in athletes before visuomotor performance: a coherence electroencephalographic study.

It has been shown that elite pistol shooters are characterized by a power increase of wide cortical electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha (about 8-12 Hz) and beta (about 14-35 Hz) rhythms during the preparation of air pistol shots, possibly related to selective attentional and "neural efficiency" processes [Del Percio C, Babiloni C, Bertollo M, Marzano N, Iacoboni M, Infarinato F, Lizio R, Stocchi M, Robazza C, Cibelli G, Comani S, Eusebi F (2009a) Hum Brain Mapp 30(11):3527-3540; Del Percio C, Babiloni C, Marzano N, Iacoboni M, Infarinato F, Vecchio F, Lizio R, Aschieri P, Fiore A, Toràn G, Gallamini M, Baratto M, Eusebi F (2009b) Brain Res Bull 79(3-4):193-200]. Here, we tested the hypothesis that such processes are associated with an enhanced functional coupling of posterior cortical regions involved in task-relevant attentional processes and visuo-motor transformations. To this aim, between-electrodes spectral coherence was computed from spatially enhanced EEG data collected during a previous study (i.e. right handed 18 elite air pistol shooters and 10 matched non-athletes; augmented 10-20 system; surface Laplacian estimation). Theta (about 4-6 Hz), low-frequency alpha (about 8-10 Hz), high-frequency alpha (about 10-12 Hz), low-frequency beta (14-22 Hz), high-frequency beta (23-35 Hz), and gamma (36-44 Hz) bands were considered. Statistical results showed that intra-hemispheric low-frequency alpha (parietal-temporal and parietal-occipital regions), high-frequency alpha (parietal-temporal and parietal-occipital regions), high-frequency beta, and gamma (parietal-temporal regions) coherence values were stable in amplitude in the elite athletes but not in the non-athletes during the preparation of pistol shots. The same applies to inter-hemispheric low-frequency alpha (parietal regions), high-frequency alpha (parietal regions), high-frequency beta and gamma coherence values. These findings suggest that under the present experimental conditions, elite athletes are characterized by the stabilization of functional coupling of preparatory EEG rhythms between "visuo-spatial" parietal area and other posterior cortical areas.