Human microbiota in aging and infection: A review.

In most developed countries, ageing of the population started more than a century ago and it seems to be emerged in a wide range of developing countries as well. Moreover, research into ageing has moved forward in extremely rapidly rhythms nowadays, and the scientific area is of great interest, as implications for nearly all sectors of society, including work, social, economic features, in addition to nutrition and health issues which are involved. The fragile elder population is affected and experienced more frequently infections than the younger population. Infections in elderly patients are of major medical importance because of hormonal changes, increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, abnormalities of the telomeres which could cause a dysfunction of the immune system called immunosenescence and malnutrition.

Antagonistic activities of some Bifidobacterium sp. strains isolated from resident infant gastrointestinal microbiota on Gram-negative enteric pathogens.

The gastrointestinal microbiota contributes to the consolidation of the anti-infectious barrier against enteric pathogens. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of Bifidobacterium sp. strains, recently isolated from infant gastrointestinal microbiota on the in vitro growth and virulence features expression of enteropathogenic bacterial strains. The antibacterial activity of twelve Bifidobacterium sp. strains isolated from human feces was examined in vitro against a wide range of Gram negative pathogenic strains isolated from 30 infant patients (3 days to 5 years old) with diarrhea. Both potential probiotic strains (Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum, Bifidobacterium catenulatum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium ruminantium) and enteropathogenic strains (EPEC, EIEC, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella sp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) were identified by MALDI-TOF and confirmed serologically when needed. The bactericidal activity, growth curve, adherence to the cellular HEp-2 substratum and production of soluble virulence factors have been assessed in the presence of different Bifidobacterium sp. cultures and fractions (whole culture and free-cell supernatants). Among the twelve Bifidobacterium sp. strains, the largest spectrum of antimicrobial activity against 9 of the 18 enteropathogenic strains was revealed for a B. breve strain recently isolated from infant intestinal feces. The whole culture and free-cell supernatant of B. breve culture decreased the multiplication rate, shortened the log phase and the total duration of the growth curve, with an earlier entrance in the decline phase and inhibited the adherence capacity to a cellular substratum and the swimming/swarming motility too. These results indicate the significant probiotic potential of the B. breve strain.

Fabrication, Characterization, and Evaluation of Bionanocomposites Based on Natural Polymers and Antibiotics for Wound Healing Applications.

The aim of our research activity was to obtain a biocompatible nanostructured composite based on naturally derived biopolymers (chitin and sodium alginate) loaded with commercial antibiotics (either Cefuroxime or Cefepime) with dual functions, namely promoting wound healing and assuring the local delivery of the loaded antibiotic. Compositional, structural, and morphological evaluations were performed by using the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analytical techniques. In order to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate the biocompatibility of the obtained composites, we performed the tetrazolium-salt (MTT) and agar diffusion in vitro assays on the L929 cell line. The evaluation of antimicrobial potential was evaluated by the viable cell count assay on strains belonging to two clinically relevant bacterial species (i.e., Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus).

Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of cultivated oregano (Origanum vulgare), sage (Salvia officinalis), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) against clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

BACKGROUND: Oregano (Origanum vulgare), sage (Salvia officinalis), and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) are aromatic plants with ornamental, culinary, and phytotherapeutic use all over the world. In Europe, they are traditionally used in the southern countries, particularly in the Mediterranean region. The antimicrobial activities of the essential oils (EOs) derived from those plants have captured the attention of scientists as they could be used as alternatives to the increasing resistance of traditional antibiotics against pathogen infections. Therefore, significant interest in the cultivation of various aromatic and medicinal plants is recorded during the last years. However, to gain a proper and marketable chemotype various factors during the cultivation should be considered as the geographical morphology, climatic, and farming conditions. In this frame, we have studied the antimicrobial efficiency of the EOs from oregano, sage, and thyme cultivated under different conditions in a region of NE Greece in comparison to the data available in literature. METHODS: Plants were purchased from a certified supplier, planted, and cultivated in an experimental field under different conditions and harvested after 9 months. EOs were extracted by using a Clevenger apparatus and tested for their antibacterial properties (Minimum inhibitory concentration - MIC) against clinical isolates of multidrug resistant Escherichia coli (n=27), Klebsiella oxytoca (n=7), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (n=16) strains by using the broth microdilution assay. RESULTS: Our results showed that the most sensitive organism was K. oxytoca with a mean value of MIC of 0.9 µg/mL for oregano EOs and 8.1 µg/mL for thyme. The second most sensitive strain was K. pneumoniae with mean MIC values of 9.5 µg/mL for thyme and 73.5 µg/mL for oregano EOs. E. coli strains were among the most resistant to EOs antimicrobial action as the observed MICs were 24.8-28.6 µg/mL for thyme and above 125 µg/mL for thyme and sage. Most efficient were the EOs from thyme followed by those of oregano. CONCLUSIONS: With MIC values above 150 µg/mL, sage EOs did not show any antibacterial efficiency against the majority of the strains. However, no significant differences were observed concerning the antimicrobial action of all EOs originating from irrigated versus non-irrigated cultivated aromatic plants.

Efficiency of vanilla, patchouli and ylang ylang essential oils stabilized by iron oxide@C14 nanostructures against bacterial adherence and biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical strains.

Biofilms formed by bacterial cells are associated with drastically enhanced resistance against most antimicrobial agents, contributing to the persistence and chronicization of the microbial infections and to therapy failure. The purpose of this study was to combine the unique properties of magnetic nanoparticles with the antimicrobial activity of three essential oils to obtain novel nanobiosystems that could be used as coatings for catheter pieces with an improved resistance to Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical strains adherence and biofilm development. The essential oils of ylang ylang, patchouli and vanilla were stabilized by the interaction with iron oxide@C14 nanoparticles to be further used as coating agents for medical surfaces. Iron oxide@C14 was prepared by co-precipitation of Fe+2 and Fe+3 and myristic acid (C14) in basic medium. Vanilla essential oil loaded nanoparticles pelliculised on the catheter samples surface strongly inhibited both the initial adherence of S. aureus cells (quantified at 24 h) and the development of the mature biofilm quantified at 48 h. Patchouli and ylang-ylang essential oils inhibited mostly the initial adherence phase of S. aureus biofilm development. In the case of K. pneumoniae, all tested nanosystems exhibited similar efficiency, being active mostly against the adherence K. pneumoniae cells to the tested catheter specimens. The new nanobiosystems based on vanilla, patchouli and ylang-ylang essential oils could be of a great interest for the biomedical field, opening new directions for the design of film-coated surfaces with anti-adherence and anti-biofilm properties.

The Networked Interaction between Probiotics and Intestine in Health and Disease: A Promising Success Story.

Probiotics are known to promote human health either precautionary in healthy individuals or therapeutically in patients suffering from certain ailments. Although this knowledge was empirical in past tomes, modern science has already verified it and expanded it to new limits. These microorganisms can be found in nature in various foods such as dairy products or in supplements formulated for clinical or preventive use. The current review examines the different mechanisms of action of the probiotic strains and how they interact with the organism of the host. Emphasis is put on the clinical therapeutic use of these beneficial microorganisms in various clinical conditions of the human gastrointestinal tract. Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and particularly any malfunction and inflammation of the intestines seriously compromise the health of the whole organism. The interaction between the probiotic strains and the host's microbiota can alleviate the clinical signs and symptoms while in some cases, in due course, it can intervene in the underlying pathology. Various safety issues of the use of probiotics are also discussed.

Exploring the Gut Microbiome's Role in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Insights and Interventions.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), encompassing Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory condition of the intestine that significantly impairs quality of life and imposes a heavy burden on healthcare systems globally. While the exact etiology of IBD is unclear, it is influenced by genetic, environmental, immunological, and microbial factors. Recent advances highlight the gut microbiome's pivotal role in IBD pathogenesis. The microbial dysbiosis characteristic of IBD, marked by a decline in beneficial bacteria and an increase in pathogenic microbes, suggests a profound connection between microbial imbalance and disease mechanisms. This review explores diagnostic approaches to IBD that integrate clinical assessment with advanced microbiological analyses, highlighting the potential of microbiome profiling as a non-invasive diagnostic tool. In addition, it evaluates conventional and emerging treatments and discusses microbiome-targeted intervention prospects, such as probiotics, symbiotics, and faecal microbiota transplantation. The necessity for future research to establish their efficacy and safety is emphasised.

Overview of Ecology and Aspects of Antibiotic Resistance in Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Free-Grazing Chicken Tissues in Rural Households.

Rural households all over the world rear backyard chicken mainly for their own consumption and, to a lesser extent, for barter trade. These chickens represent a staple dish with numerous culinary variations and a cheap source of protein. Although some Campylobacter species, and particularly Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, have been associated with industrial poultry carcasses, studies concerning the ecology of this genus in rural households do not exist. To assess the prevalence of Campylobacter species in the tissues of backyard chickens, samples were collected from birds Gallus domesticus bred in households in the rural area of Epirus (Greece), and Campylobacter strains were isolated by quantitative methods at 37 °C and 42 °C. In total, 256 strains were identified, belonging to 17 Campylobacter species, with C. jejuni and C. coli being the most prevalent. From the four ecological parameters studied (size of the flock, presence of small ruminants in the same household, presence of other poultry species in the same household, and feeding leftovers of the household), the size of the flock and the presence of small ruminants and/or pigs in the same household mostly affected the distribution of these strains. To study the phenotypical resistance against 14 antibiotics, 215 strains were selected. The results showed a high prevalence of multidrug-resistance (MDR) strains extending to all classes of antibiotics. Further genome analysis revealed the presence of genes coding resistance (blaOxA-61, tet(O), tet(A) cmeA, cmeB, cmeC, and gyrA (Thr-86-Ile mutation)), with the efflux pump CmeABC being the most prevalent. All antimicrobial resistance-encoded genes co-circulated, except for blaOXA-61, which moved independently. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of two out of three antibiotics (representing different classes) were reduced when the strains tested were exposed to carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), a known efflux pump inhibitor. The same result was obtained with the addition of CCCP to the MIC values of bile salts. These results lead to the conclusion that Campylobacter species are present in an impressive diversity in backyard chicken tissues and that they exert a significant resistance to antibiotics, raising a potential danger for public health.

The Role of Total Quality Management in the Pharmaceutical, Food, and Nutritional Supplement Sectors.

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a holistic approach widely adopted across industries to ensure quality control and management. This document examines TQM practices in the pharmaceutical, food, and nutritional supplement sectors, highlighting their vital role in public health, sustainability, and consumer acceptance. By analyzing the literature and case studies, the article demonstrates how TQM significantly ensures product safety and quality. Real-world examples and empirical evidence showcase the benefits of TQM methodologies, from rigorous quality control to efficient management processes, helping to meet and exceed regulatory standards. The article also underscores TQM's critical role in addressing sustainability challenges, integrating eco-friendly practices, reducing waste, and optimizing resources. Furthermore, TQM fosters consumer trust and loyalty through transparency, continuous improvement, and responsiveness to feedback, building lasting business-customer relationships. In conclusion, this manuscript illuminates TQM's multifaceted impact on the pharmaceutical, food, and nutritional supplement sectors, presenting it as a pivotal framework for safeguarding public health, promoting sustainability, and enhancing consumer acceptance in a dynamic global landscape.

Water dispersible magnetite nanoparticles influence the efficacy of antibiotics against planktonic and biofilm embedded Enterococcus faecalis cells.

The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of magnetic nanoparticles to potentiate, but also to accomplish a sustained and controlled drug release and subsequently improve the efficacy of antibiotics against Enterococcus faecalis, one of the most resistant opportunistic pathogens, that poses a threat to chronically infected or immunocompromised patients and is difficult to eradicate from medical devices. To our knowledge, this is the first study trying to investigate the ability of magnetite nanoparticles to improve the anti-bacterial activity of the current antibiotics against planktonic and biofilm growing E. faecalis. Our results are suggesting that the magnetite nanoparticles may be considered an effective aminoglycoside antibiotics carrier, but a complete understanding of the way in which they selectively interact with different antibiotics and with the bacterial cell is needed, in order to obtain improved strategies for elimination of E. faecalis biofilms on biomedical devices or human tissues.

COVID-19 on the spectrum: a scoping review of hygienic standards.

The emergence of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, rapidly escalated into a worldwide public health crisis. Despite numerous clinical treatment endeavors, initial defenses against the virus primarily relied on hygiene practices like mask-wearing, meticulous hand hygiene (using soap or antiseptic solutions), and maintaining social distancing. Even with the subsequent advent of vaccines and the commencement of mass vaccination campaigns, these hygiene measures persistently remain in effect, aiming to curb virus transmission until the achievement of herd immunity. In this scoping review, we delve into the effectiveness of these measures and the diverse transmission pathways, focusing on the intricate interplay within the food network. Furthermore, we explore the virus's pathophysiology, considering its survival on droplets of varying sizes, each endowed with distinct aerodynamic attributes that influence disease dispersion dynamics. While respiratory transmission remains the predominant route, the potential for oral-fecal transmission should not be disregarded, given the protracted presence of viral RNA in patients' feces after the infection period. Addressing concerns about food as a potential viral vector, uncertainties shroud the virus's survivability and potential to contaminate consumers indirectly. Hence, a meticulous and comprehensive hygienic strategy remains paramount in our collective efforts to combat this pandemic.

The Role of Probiotics in Inducing and Maintaining Remission in Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are chronic inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract affecting millions of patients worldwide. The gut microbiome partly determines the pathogenesis of both diseases. Even though probiotics have been widely used as a potential treatment, their efficacy in inducing and maintaining remission is still controversial. Our study aims to review the present-day literature about the possible role of probiotics in treating inflammatory bowel diseases in adults. This research was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We included studies concerning adult patients who compared probiotics with placebo or non-probiotic intervention. We identified thirty-three studies, including 2713 patients from fourteen countries. The role of probiotics in Crohn's disease was examined in eleven studies. Only four studies presented statistically significant results in the remission of disease, primarily when used for three to six months. On the other hand, in twenty-one out of twenty-five studies, probiotics proved effective in achieving or maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis. Supplementation with Bifidobacterium sp. or a combination of probiotics is the most effective intervention, especially when compared with a placebo. There is strong evidence supporting the usage of probiotic supplementation in patients with ulcerative colitis, yet more research is needed to justify their efficacy in Crohn's disease.

Insights into Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Applications of Plant Bioactive Compounds.

Plants have long been thought to contribute to health promotion due to their fiber and phenolic content, as well as their inherent biological potential. The bioactive derivatives of medicinal plants are a valuable resource in the fight against serious diseases all around the world. The present review focuses on the current state of knowledge on the usage and medicinal applications of plant bioactives. Issues concerning the effect of aromatic plant derivatives on human gut microbiota and their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory potentials are discussed and worth further exploring.

Alterations of gut microbiome following gastrointestinal surgical procedures and their potential complications.

Intestinal microorganisms play a crucial role in shaping the host immunity and maintaining homeostasis. Nevertheless, alterations in gut bacterial composition may occur and these alterations have been linked with the pathogenesis of several diseases. In surgical practice, studies revealed that the microbiome of patients undergoing surgery changes and several post-operative complications seem to be associated with the gut microbiota composition. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of gut microbiota (GM) in surgical disease. We refer to several studies which describe alterations of GM in patients undergoing different types of surgery, we focus on the impacts of peri-operative interventions on GM and the role of GM in development of post-operative complications, such as anastomotic leak. The review aims to enhance comprehension regarding the correlation between GM and surgical procedures based in the current knowledge. However, preoperative and postoperative synthesis of GM needs to be further examined in future studies, so that GM-targeted measures could be assessed and the different surgery complications could be reduced.

Coastal Water Quality Modelling Using E. coli, Meteorological Parameters and Machine Learning Algorithms.

In this study, machine learning models were implemented to predict the classification of coastal waters in the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (EMT) concerning Escherichia coli (E. coli) concentration and weather variables in the framework of the Directive 2006/7/EC. Six sampling stations of EMT, located on beaches of the regional units of Kavala, Xanthi, Rhodopi, Evros, Thasos and Samothraki, were selected. All 1039 samples were collected from May to September within a 14-year follow-up period (2009-2021). The weather parameters were acquired from nearby meteorological stations. The samples were analysed according to the ISO 9308-1 for the detection and the enumeration of E. coli. The vast majority of the samples fall into category 1 (Excellent), which is a mark of the high quality of the coastal waters of EMT. The experimental results disclose, additionally, that two-class classifiers, namely Decision Forest, Decision Jungle and Boosted Decision Tree, achieved high Accuracy scores over 99%. In addition, comparing our performance metrics with those of other researchers, diversity is observed in using algorithms for water quality prediction, with algorithms such as Decision Tree, Artificial Neural Networks and Bayesian Belief Networks demonstrating satisfactory results. Machine learning approaches can provide critical information about the dynamic of E. coli contamination and, concurrently, consider the meteorological parameters for coastal waters classification.

Sentiment analysis of epidemiological surveillance reports on COVID-19 in Greece using machine learning models.

The present research deals with sentiment analysis performed with Microsoft Azure Machine Learning Studio to classify Facebook posts on the Greek National Public Health Organization (EODY) from November 2021 to January 2022 during the pandemic. Positive, negative and neutral sentiments were included after processing 300 reviews. This approach involved analyzing the words appearing in the comments and exploring the sentiments related to daily surveillance reports of COVID-19 published on the EODY Facebook page. Moreover, machine learning algorithms were implemented to predict the classification of sentiments. This research assesses the efficiency of a few popular machine learning models, which is one of the initial efforts in Greece in this domain. People have negative sentiments toward COVID surveillance reports. Words with the highest frequency of occurrence include government, vaccinated people, unvaccinated, telephone communication, health measures, virus, COVID-19 rapid/molecular tests, and of course, COVID-19. The experimental results disclose additionally that two classifiers, namely two class Neural Network and two class Bayes Point Machine, achieved high sentiment analysis accuracy and F1 score, particularly 87% and over 35%. A significant limitation of this study may be the need for more comparison with other research attempts that identified the sentiments of the EODY surveillance reports of COVID in Greece. Machine learning models can provide critical information combating public health hazards and enrich communication strategies and proactive actions in public health issues and opinion management during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Orange juice containing Pediococcus acidilactici CE51 modulates the intestinal microbiota and reduces induced inflammation in a murine model of colitis.

The management of inflammatory bowel diseases has been widely investigated, especially ulcerative colitis. Thus, studies with the application of new probiotic products are needed in the prevention/treatment of these clinical conditions. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of probiotic orange juice containing Pediococcus acidilactici CE51 in a murine model of colitis. 45 male Swiss lineage mice were used, divided into five groups (n = 9): control, colitis, colitis + probiotic (probiotic orange juice containing CE51), colitis + placebo (orange juice) and colitis + sulfasalazine (10 mg/kg/Weight). The induction of colitis was performed with dextran sodium sulfate (3%). The treatment time was 5 and 15 days after induction. Histopathological analysis, serum measurements of TNF-α and C-reactive protein and metagenomic analysis of feces were performed after euthanasia. Probiotic treatment reduced inflammation in the small intestine, large intestine and spleen. The probiotic did not alter the serum dosages of TNF-α and C-reactive protein. Their use maintained the quantitative ratio of the phylum Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and increased Lactobacillus helveticus with 15 days of treatment (p < 0.05). The probiotic orange juice containing P. acidilactici CE51 positively modulated the gut microbiota composition and attenuated the inflammation induced in colitis.

Corinthian Currants Supplementation Restores Serum Polar Phenolic Compounds, Reduces IL-1beta, and Exerts Beneficial Effects on Gut Microbiota in the Streptozotocin-Induced Type-1 Diabetic Rat.

The present study aimed at investigating the possible benefits of a dietary intervention with Corinthian currants, a rich source of phenolic compounds, on type 1 diabetes (T1D) using the animal model of the streptozotocin-(STZ)-induced diabetic rat. Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned into four groups: control animals, which received a control diet (CD) or a diet supplemented with 10% w/w Corinthian currants (CCD), and diabetic animals, which received a control diet (DCD) or a currant diet (DCCD) for 4 weeks. Plasma biochemical parameters, insulin, polar phenolic compounds, and inflammatory factors were determined. Microbiota populations in tissue and intestinal fluid of the caecum, as well as fecal microbiota populations and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), were measured. Fecal microbiota was further analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing. The results of the study showed that a Corinthian currant-supplemented diet restored serum polar phenolic compounds and decreased interleukin-1b (IL-1b) (p < 0.05) both in control and diabetic animals. Increased caecal lactobacilli counts (p < 0.05) and maintenance of enterococci levels within normal range were observed in the intestinal fluid of the DCCD group (p < 0.05 compared to DCD). Higher acetic acid levels were detected in the feces of diabetic rats that received the currant diet compared to the animals that received the control diet (p < 0.05). Corinthian currant could serve as a beneficial dietary component in the condition of T1D based on the results coming from the animal model of the STZ-induced T1D rat.

Intestinal cytochromes P450 regulating the intestinal microbiota and its probiotic profile.

Cytochromes P450 (CYPs) enzymes metabolize a large variety of xenobiotic substances. In this vein, a plethora of studies were conducted to investigate their role, as cytochromes are located in both liver and intestinal tissues. The P450 profile of the human intestine has not been fully characterized. Human intestine serves primarily as an absorptive organ for nutrients, although it has also the ability to metabolize drugs. CYPs are responsible for the majority of phase I drug metabolism reactions. CYP3A represents the major intestinal CYP (80%) followed by CYP2C9. CYP1A is expressed at high level in the duodenum, together with less abundant levels of CYP2C8-10 and CYP2D6. Cytochromes present a genetic polymorphism intra- or interindividual and intra- or interethnic. Changes in the pharmacokinetic profile of the drug are associated with increased toxicity due to reduced metabolism, altered efficacy of the drug, increased production of toxic metabolites, and adverse drug interaction. The high metabolic capacity of the intestinal flora is due to its enormous pool of enzymes, which catalyzes reactions in phase I and phase II drug metabolism. Compromised intestinal barrier conditions, when rupture of the intestinal integrity occurs, could increase passive paracellular absorption. It is clear that high microbial intestinal charge following intestinal disturbances, ageing, environment, or food-associated ailments leads to the microbial metabolism of a drug before absorption. The effect of certain bacteria having a benefic action on the intestinal ecosystem has been largely discussed during the past few years by many authors. The aim of the probiotic approach is to repair the deficiencies in the gut flora and establish a protective effect. There is a tentative multifactorial association of the CYP (P450) cytochrome role in the different diseases states, environmental toxic effects or chemical exposures and nutritional status.

The Emerging Role of the Gut Microbiome in Cardiovascular Disease: Current Knowledge and Perspectives.

The collection of normally non-pathogenic microorganisms that mainly inhabit our gut lumen shapes our health in many ways. Structural and functional perturbations in the gut microbial pool, known as "dysbiosis", have been proven to play a vital role in the pathophysiology of several diseases, including cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although therapeutic regimes are available to treat this group of diseases, they have long been the main cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. While age, sex, genetics, diet, tobacco use, and alcohol consumption are major contributors (World Health Organization, 2018), they cannot explain all of the consequences of CVD. In addition to the abovementioned traditional risk factors, the constant search for novel preventative and curative tools has shed light on the involvement of gut bacteria and their metabolites in the pathogenesis of CVD. In this narrative review, we will discuss the established interconnections between the gut microbiota and CVD, as well as the plausible therapeutic perspectives.